Chapter 6 - Lecture notes 6 PDF

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CHAPTER 6

Shrinking The Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–250 CE Chapter Summary The army of Alexander the Great not only defeated opponents on the battlefield but also connected the different societies and peoples that Alexander encountered along his path from Macedonia to India. Political Expansions and Cultural Diffusion Alexander’s victories ushered in an age of thinking and practices that transformed Greek achievements into a common portable culture called Hellenism. Although Hellenism did not eradicate local cultures, it provoked shifts and adjustments in the cultures it encountered. In that process, many of the world’s regions became more integrated. Alexander laid the foundation for state systems and introduced some stability for and protection of trading systems. Major commercial arteries formed, most famously the Silk Road. Alexander’s armies had followed the existing pathways of long-distance trade and cultural exchange, but such relationships were limited by institutional weaknesses. Slowly a new idea took hold: the world’s parts could be integrated by common cultures and shared commodities. Hellenism followed on the heels of Alexander’s conquests and Buddhism followed the conquests of the Mauryan dynasty in South Asia. The interconnections of trade and culture enhanced regional integration as conquests created opportunities for new ways of integrating society. Long-distance caravan and naval trading plied regular trade routes that were dotted with commercial hubs. The Economic Emergence of a Cosmopolitan World Alexander the Great’s military conquests broke down the barriers between the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia and drove Hellenistic influences as far as South Asia. THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT The small frontier state of Macedonia had grown into a territorial state, conquering neighbor states and using its resources as well as profits from the slave trade to finance new military technology and a disciplined, full-time army. Philip II, Alexander’s father, crushed the Greek city-states to the south, and Alexander, who succeeded his father following Philip’s assassination in 336 BCE, turned his armies toward the Persian Empire to the east. Using heavily armored infantry in closely arrayed phalanxes, Alexander became a daring commander willing to take risks and soon captured vast stretches of land. Alexander did not live long enough to establish the institutional structures of an empire, but he exposed Egypt and Southwest Asia to Hellenistic ideas as well as money-based economies. He seized the wealth of the Persian kings and dispersed it into the money economies of the Mediterranean city-states, which fueled a huge economic expansion in the Mediterranean. ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS AND THE TERRITORIAL KINGDOMS With Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, his regime fragmented among his generals. They modeled their regimes on the regional rulers they had defeated, creating themselves as absolute rulers over large blocks of territories. In these states women found an opportunity to take political roles as queens and regents that had been denied them in the Greek city-states. Three large territorial states overshadowed this new expanse: the Seleucid state based in Syria; the Antigonid state based in Macedonia; and the Ptolemaic state based in Egypt. Between these states many middle-sized kingdoms emerged. Even the Greek citystates formed larger confederations. The new political states began to coalesce into larger operating units. They believed they could integrate neighboring peoples as fellow subjects because their culture transcended the place in which it was created. Military competition between these states was frequent, with larger, more complex military campaigns than the Mediterranean had previously seen. Yet the parity between states prevented any substantial gains from this warfare.

HELLENISTIC CULTURE A new uniform culture emerged that stressed the common identity of all who embraced Greek ways. This culture included secular disciplines such as history, biology, philosophical and political thinking, popular entertainments, competitive public games, and secular art. Common Language Koine Greek became the international language of the day, which facilitated communication for trade and for the exchange of ideas. Cosmopolitan Cities Alexandria in Egypt became the model of a multiethnic Hellenistic city. In such cities, playwrights wrote plays to appeal to urban audiences in many different territorial settings. Stock characters such as the miser or the jilted lover replaced distinctive regional humor. New ideas emerged that emphasized the cosmopolitan identity of many individuals. The kingdom became so large that individuals could only relate to it through the personality of the ruler. Rulership was personality, and large numbers of people were bound together through it. A cult of the self developed as Hellenistic religion and philosophy increasingly focused on the individual and his or her place in the larger world. Philosophy and Religion The Athenian philosopher Diogenes demonstrated this interest with the individual self by seeking self-sufficiency from the laws and customs of society and rejecting all cultural norms of his society as not in tune with nature. Epicurus emphasized sensation and believed that peace of mind was found by avoiding harm to oneself and seeking happiness in life. The Stoics emphasized that living a good life required controlling one’s passions and understanding the natural order. Egyptian Greeks transformed the pharaonic temple rituals associated with Osiris and Isis to fashion a new narrative about personal salvation from death. These new religious and philosophical beliefs emphasized the spiritual concerns of individuals rather than the collective concerns of towns and cities. Hellenism and the Elites Social elites believed they could enhance their position by adopting Hellenistic culture. Hellenism even moved into sub-Saharan Africa where the kingdoms of Meroe and Axum both adopted the practice of erecting Greek stelae to boast of their exploits, mixing African, Egyptian, and Greek practices. JEWISH RESISTANCE TO HELLENISM Upon returning from exile in the late sixth century BCE, the Jews in Judea rebuilt their capital city in Jerusalem and reestablished their religious community through cultural and ritual regulations. The arrival of Hellenism, however, had a mixed reception in Judea. Some parts of the Jewish ruling elite adopted Greek culture, while other parts of the Jewish community consciously rejected Hellenism. By the beginning of the first century BCE, the kings of Judea had adopted many Greek practices and ruled over a largely secular kingdom. Jews living in cities such as Alexandria fully embraced the new Hellenistic culture. THE HELLENISTIC WORLD AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE The Romans quickly saw the Greek model as offering them opportunities to expand their influence in the Mediterranean. Beginning as a Mediterranean city-state, Rome mutated into a large territorial state while adopting many elements of Hellenistic culture—practices they believed allowed them to appear “civilized” to the rest of the world. Romans did struggle over this transition, and leaders such as Cato the Elder sought to blend extreme devotion to Roman tradition with the bold innovations of Hellenism. CARTHAGE

The city of Carthage on the central North African coast adopted Hellenism easily and with much success. The Carthaginians traded throughout the Mediterranean and established colonies along the African Atlantic coast. ECONOMIC CHANGES: PLANTATION SLAVERY AND MONEY-BASED ECONOMIES The use of mass slave populations in agricultural produce was a fundamental economic innovation that accompanied Mediterranean unity and drove the new economy of the region. Estates created vast wealth for a small elite but at a brutal cost to the large slave populations. Three massive slave uprisings occurred between 135 and 70 BCE. In addition, former free peasants were forced into overcrowded cities to seek work. The growing circulation of money facilitated trade and commerce, and many kingdoms and cities began to mint their own coinage, even borderland peoples such as the Gauls. Borderland chieftains sold their own people into slavery to obtain new commodities. Converging Influences in Central and South Asia As the armies of Alexander crossed the passes that linked the high plateau of Iran to the north and the towering ranges of Tibet to the east with the mountains of what is today Afghanistan, they opened trade routes between the eastern and western portions of Afro-Eurasia. The politics, economics, and cultures of Afro-Eurasia would be affected by the integration of central and South Asia into these east-west links. INFLUENCES FROM THE MAURYAN EMPIRE Alexander the Great’s occupation of the Indus Valley lasted only two years, and his withdrawal in 325 BCE left a political vacuum. The Regime of Chandragupta Chandragupta Maurya, ruler of the Magadha kingdom, launched a series of successful military expeditions, expanding the reach of the Mauryan Empire—the first large-scale empire in South Asia, which at its peak included nearly all of South Asia, excluding only the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. Among these lands were territories that remained Greek-speaking for centuries and in which Greek-style cities emerged. The Regime of Aśoka The third king of the Mauryan Empire, Aśoka, was a faithful follower and patron of Buddhism who built stupas (Buddhist dome monuments) marking burial sites of relics of the Buddha. He claimed to rule over his subjects through dhamma, a general set of moral regulations applicable to people of all faiths. The works of art created under Aśoka’s patronage reflected cultural exchanges among Greeks, Persians, and Indians. THE SELEUCID EMPIRE AND GREEK INFLUENCES Alexander the Great and the early Seleucid rulers established many garrison towns in eastern Iran, northern Afghanistan, and the Punjab. These outposts became major Hellenistic cities. Greek soldiers integrated themselves into local populations, married local women, and brought to these cities many characteristics of Greek cities—amphitheaters, gymnasiums, and marketplaces. The long endurance of the Greek language provided a common basis for engagement in a strip of land stretching from the Mediterranean to South Asia. THE KINGDOM OF BACTRIA AND THE YAVANNA KINGS Hellenistic influences were pronounced in central Asia. The Hellenistic kingdom of Bactria established a strong state around 200 BCE in a region that includes part of present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan. As the empire expanded, it included many Indian residents, mixing Greek and Indian influences. Bactria served as a bridge between South Asia and the Greek world of the Mediterranean. When the Greek Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India, he left his generals to extend his empire, and after his death, many established themselves as independent rulers known in Sanskrit as the Yavanna kings. The

remains of Greek garrison towns from this region attest to the strength of Hellenistic influences. Young people were educated in gymnasiums to help sustain Greek culture in these towns, and temples assimilated local gods into Greek figures. Coinage used both Greek and local iconography and languages. NOMADIC INFLUENCES OF PARTHIANS AND KUSHANS In the last three centuries BCE, invasions and migrations from central Asia weakened Hellenistic influences in Iran and southwestern Asia. The Parthians The Parthians wiped out the Greek kingdoms in Iran and extended power all the way to the Mediterranean, where they encountered the expanding Roman Empire. The Parthians and Romans fought in Mesopotamia for nearly four centuries. The growth of the Xiongnu confederacy in the East Asian steppes pushed additional groups southward. The Parthians also moved into the Indus Valley from the northwest. India’s new rulers adopted the practices of local rulers— minting coins, collecting taxes, and facilitating trade. The Kushans The most powerful of the northern nomadic groups to migrate into the Indian subcontinent were the YuezhiKushans, who gained control over a large and diverse territory and played a critical role in the formation of the Silk Road. The Kushans adopted Greek as their official language, and the Kushan rulers kept Hellenistic influences alive in Afghanistan and northwestern India. These new nomadic groups did not undermine local culture or the Hellenic heritage, but they did enhance the equestrian culture in South Asia. Horses became the most prestigious status symbol of the ruling elite. The Kushans stabilized the trading routes that became one of the major segments of the Silk Road. The Transformation of Buddhism Impressed with Hellenistic culture, the Indians sought to blend it with Buddhism. Beginning in the Yavanna city-states, the idea emerged that the Buddha was not just an inspired ethical philosopher but was a god. INDIA AS A SPIRITUAL CROSSROADS As many trade routes traversed India or touched its shores, India became a melting pot of ideas and institutions from which a powerful new spiritual synthesis emerged. Kushan kings in particular patronized local religious sites, and wealth flowed into religious institutions, especially Buddhist monasteries. THE NEW BUDDHISM: THE MAHAYANA SCHOOL The mixing of nomadic, Hellenistic, Persian, and Mesopotamian traditions with Buddhism produced a new religious synthesis: Mahayana Buddhism. In the first two centuries CE, the Mahayana Buddhists affirmed the divinity of the Buddha. While earlier Buddhist teaching emphasized the suffering of life, Mahayana Buddhism emphasized Bodhisattvas, enlightened demigods who prepared “Buddha-lands” to welcome deceased devotees not yet ready to let go of desire and to enter nirvana. The afterlife of Mahayana Buddhism was thus colorful and pleasant because all individuals could move from a life of suffering into a happy existence. The idea of Mahayana Buddhism quickly spread throughout South Asia, providing Buddhist beliefs more uniformity. CULTURAL INTEGRATION Hellenistic art influenced the art related to Buddha, giving the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas a realistic human form, thus bringing Buddhism closer to the people. Buddhist art also depicted a society of diverse populations, all adopting Buddhist beliefs. Under the Kushans, Buddhist monasteries blended Greco- Roman, Indic, and steppe cultural themes.

The Formation of the Silk Road By 300 BCE, the routes traveled by merchants to exchange metals and spices expanded to link the lands from India to the Mediterranean. In the first century BCE overland routes from China to central Asia were joined to routes from central Asia to the Mediterranean, forming what was later labeled the Silk Road. Individuals worked certain portions of the route, passing goods on to others who moved them further along the road. Sea routes also emerged following the coastlines along the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian and Red seas. Toward the end of the first millennium BCE navigational techniques improved and stronger crafts appeared, allowing Arab sailors to venture across the Indian Ocean. Long-distance trade reinforced the development of commerce in individual regions. A NEW MIDDLE GROUND Trade encouraged the shift from Egypt and Mesopotamia as sources of innovation and knowledge to their former borderlands—the Mediterranean in the west and India in the east—as new centers of their own empires. China was brought into direct contact with central Asia, but China remained mysterious to those lands in the Mediterranean. NOMADS, FRONTIERS, AND TRADE ROUTES Nomads from Inner Asia, accustomed to carrying supplies over long distances, gradually learned to trade goods from one region for goods produced elsewhere. Their travels also exposed the nomads to a variety of microbes, granting them immunity to a wide range of diseases. The nomads raced into the political vacuum created by Alexander’s armies and created new regimes that linked China to the Iranian plateau. The most important nomads were the Xiongnu pastoralists, who drove the Yuezhi from the Asian steppes. The Yuezhi retreated into Bactria and then South Asia, forming the Kushan Empire. The Yuezhi-Kushan provided a key link between trade between east and west. EARLY OVERLAND TRADE AND CARAVAN CITIES The growth in trade led to a new type of commercial hub: the caravan city. Vast trading groups assembled at strategic locations before beginning arduous journeys. An important number of caravan cities emerged at the northern end of a route through the Arabian desert. At the southwestern tip of the Arabian Peninsula Yemen gained prosperity due to its role linking together land routes with sea routes that traversed the Red and Arabian seas and due to its frankincense and myrrh trade. Nabataen herders in the Sinai Desert and northwest Arabian Peninsula transported the spices to the Mediterranean. They built their capital—a rock city called Petra—with many Greek influences. THE WESTERN END OF THE SILK ROAD: PALMYRA When Petra declined during the Roman era, Palmyra emerged as the most important caravan city at the western end of the Silk Road. Administered by an oligarchy of local tribal chieftains, Palmyra maintained considerable autonomy even under formal Roman control. Roman citizens relied upon Palmyra to obtain luxury items, especially Chinese silks. With profits from the trade, the people of Palmyra built a marble city in the desert. Palmyra not only provided supplies and financing to caravans, but also hosted self-contained trading communities. REACHING CHINA ALONG THE SILK ROAD China was an economic giant whose most profitable product was silk, which was used for many purposes due to its adaptability and strength. China used silk for currency to purchase horses and for paying off neighbors. From India to the Mediterranean, silk became the ultimate prestige commodity for the ruling classes.

The Silk Economy In China, after 300 BCE, independent farmers increasingly produced commercial crops for the expanding markets. Merchants organized themselves into influential family lineages and occupational guilds. Power shifted from older agrarian elites and into the hands of urban financiers and traders. Chinese and other merchants spread across the Silk Road and the South China Sea. The Role of the State The state sought to protect this trade by sending military boats to protect merchant ships. China lacked major ports comparable to Palmyra, and Chinese trade fed into the Silk Road through decentralized networks. The booming trade that rippled through China would reshape its social and political structures. THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM ALONG THE TRADE ROUTES Under Kushan patronage during the first centuries CE, Buddhism reached out from India to China and central Asia following the Silk Road. Buddhist monks accompanied traders to the capital of the Chinese Han Empire and translated Buddhist texts into Chinese, but Buddhist ideas were slow to gain acceptance. Buddhism was even less successful following commercial routes westward where Zoroastrianism was well established on the Iranian plateau. Taking to the Seas: Commerce on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean In the Hellenistic age, ships increasingly engaged in long distance trade. Arab seafarers forged links that joined East Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, and the Arabian Peninsula with India. Arab sailors took advantage of the new navigational techniques of celestial bearings and large dhow ships with sails to capture the winds as well as better knowledge of wind currents to venture into the Indian Ocean. Sea captains recorded maritime information in books called periplus. All of these innovations dramatically reduced long-distance shipping costs and established in effect a second Silk Road by sea....