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Chapter 7...

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Chapter 7 Primary Functions Relat Related ed Combining F Forms orms Major Structures

Relat Related ed Combining F Forms orms

Primary Functions

Nose

nas/o

Exchanges air during inhaling and exhaling; warms, moisturizes, and filters inhaled air.

Sinuses

sinus/o

Produce mucus for the nasal cavities, make bones of the skull lighter, aid in sound production.

Pharynx

pharyng/o

Transports air back and forth between the nose and the trachea.

Larynx

laryng/o

Makes speech possible.

Epiglottis

epiglot epiglott/o t/o

Closes off the trachea during swallowing.

Trachea

tr trache/o ache/o

Transports air back and forth between the pharynx and the bronchi.

Bronchi

bronch/o bronch/o, bronchi/o

Transports air from the trachea into the lungs.

Alveoli

alve alveol/o ol/o

Air sacs that exchange gases with the pulmonary capillary blood.

Lungs

pneum/o pneum/o, pneumon/o, pulmon/o

Bring oxygen into the body, and remove carbon dioxide and some water waste from the body.

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bronch/o, bronchi/o bronchial tube, bronchus laryng/o larynx, throat nas/o nose ox/i, ox/o, ox/y oxygen pharyng/o throat, pharynx phon/o sound, voice pleur/o pleura, side of the body -pnea breathing pneum/o, pneumon/o, pneu- lung, air pulm/o, pulmon/o lung sinus/o sinus somn/o sleep spir/o to breathe

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thorac/o, -thorax chest, pleural cavity trache/o, trachea windpipe, trachea

alveoli The very small grapelike clusters found at the end of each bronchiole. Anoxia The absence of oxygen from the body's tissues and organs even though there is an adequate flow of blood. Antitussive Medication administered to prevent or relieve coughing. Aphonia Loss of the ability of the larynx to produce normal speech sounds Asbestosis The form of pneumoconiosis caused by asbestos particles in the lungs. Asphyxia The loss of consciousness that occurs when the body cannot get the oxygen it needs to function. Asthma A chronic, inflammatory disease of the bronchial tubes, often triggered by an allergic reaction and characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing. Atelectasis The incomplete expansion of part or all of a lung due to a blockage of the air passages or pneumothorax. Bradypnea An abnormally slow rate of respiration, usually of less than 10 breaths per minute. Bronchodilator A medication that relaxes and expands the bronchial passages into the lungs. Bronchorrhea An excessive discharge of mucus from the bronchi. Bronchoscopy The visual examination of the bronchi through using a bronchoscope. Bronchospasm A contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles that tighten and squeeze the airway shut. Cheyne–Stokes respiration An irregular pattern of breathing characterized by alternating rapid or shallow respiration followed by slower respiration or apnea. Croup An acute respiratory syndrome in children and infants characterized by obstruction of the larynx, hoarseness, and swelling around the vocal cords, resulting in a barking cough and stridor. Cyanosis A bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes caused by a lack of adequate oxygen in the blood. cystic fibrosis A life-threatening genetic disorder in which the lungs and pancreas are clogged with large quantities of abnormally thick mucus.

Diphtheria An acute bacterial infection of the throat and upper respiratory tract. Dysphonia Difficulty in speaking, which may include any impairment in vocal quality, including hoarseness, weakness, or the cracking of a boy's voice during puberty. Dyspnea Difficult or labored breathing; also known as shortness of breath. Emphysema The progressive, long-term loss of lung function, usually due to smoking. Empyema An accumulation of pus in a body cavity. endotracheal intubation The passage of a tube through the mouth into the trachea to establish or maintain an open airway. Epistaxis Bleeding from the nose that may be caused by dry air, an injury, medication to prevent blood clotting, or high blood pressure; also known as a nosebleed. Hemoptysis The expectoration of blood or bloodstained sputum derived from the lungs or bronchial tubes as the result of pulmonary or bronchial hemorrhage. Hemothorax A collection of blood in the pleural cavity. Hypercapnia The abnormal buildup of carbon dioxide in the blood. Hyperpnea An increase in the depth and rate of the respiratory movements. Hypopnea Shallow or slow respiration. Hypoxemia The condition of having low oxygen levels in the blood. Hypoxia The condition of having deficient oxygen levels in the body's tissues and organs; less severe than anoxia. Laryngectomy The surgical removal of the larynx. Laryngitis Inflammation of the larynx; also commonly used to describe voice loss that is caused by this inflammation Laryngoscopy The visual examination of the larynx using a laryngoscope. Laryngospasm The sudden spasmodic closure of the larynx. Mediastinum The middle section of the chest cavity located between the lungs. This cavity contains the heart and its veins and arteries, the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, the thymus gland, and lymph nodes.

Nebulizer An electronic device that pumps air or oxygen through a liquid medicine to turn it into a vapor, which is then inhaled by the patient via a face mask or mouthpiece. Otolaryngologist A physician with specialized training in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the head and neck. Pertussis A contagious bacterial infection of the upper respiratory tract that is characterized by recurrent bouts of a paroxysmal cough, followed by breathlessness and a noisy inspiration. Pharyngitis An inflammation of the pharynx. Phlegm Thick mucus secreted by the tissues lining the respiratory passages. Pleurisy An inflammation of the pleura, the membranes that cover the lungs and line the pleural cavity; causes pleurodynia. Pleurodynia A sharp pain that occurs when the inflamed membranes rub against each other with each inhalation. Pneumoconiosis Any fibrosis of the lung tissues caused by dust in the lungs after prolonged environmental or occupational contact. Pneumonectomy The surgical removal of all or part of a lung. Pneumonia A serious inflammation of the lungs in which the alveoli and air passages fill with pus and other liquid Pneumothorax The accumulation of air in the pleural space, causing a pressure imbalance that causes the lung to fully or partially collapse. Polysomnography The diagnostic measurement of physiological activity during sleep; also known as a sleep study. Pulmonologist A physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders of the respiratory system. pulse oximeter An external monitor placed on the patient's fingertip or earlobe to measure the oxygen saturation level in the blood. Pyothorax A collection of pus in the pleural cavity between the layers of the pleural membrane. Sinusitis Inflammation of the sinuses. sleep apnea A potentially serious disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep for long enough periods to cause a measurable decrease in blood oxygen levels.

Spirometer A recording device that measures the amount of air inhaled or exhaled and the length of time required for each breath. Tachypnea An abnormally rapid rate of respiration, usually of more than 20 breaths per minute. Thoracentesis The surgical puncture of the chest wall with a needle to obtain fluid from the pleural cavity. Thoracotomy A surgical incision into the chest walls to open the pleural cavity for biopsy or treatment. Tracheostomy The surgical creation of a stoma into the trachea in order to insert a temporary or permanent tube to facilitate breathing. Tracheotomy An emergency procedure in which an incision is made into the trachea to gain access to the airway below a blockage. Tuberculosis An infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that usually attacks the lungs; also known as TB, it can also affect other parts of the body.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a group of lung diseases in which the bronchial airflow is obstructed, making it difficult to breathe out. COPD, which is most often caused by long-term smoking, is generally permanent and progressive. Most people with COPD suffer from two related conditions: chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Chronic bronchitis is a disease in which the airways have become inflamed due to recurrent exposure to an inhaled irritant, usually cigarette smoke  bronch means bronchus, and -itis means inflammation  An increase in the number and size of mucus-producing cells results in excessive mucus production and thickening of the walls of the air passages. This causes chronic coughing, difficulty getting air in and out of the lungs, and increased risk of bacterial lung infections. Emphysema is the progressive, long-term loss of lung function, usually due to smoking. Emphysema is characterized by a decrease in the total number of alveoli, enlargement of the remaining alveoli, and the progressive destruction of the walls of these remaining alveoli. As the alveoli are destroyed, breathing becomes increasingly rapid, shallow, and difficult. In an effort to compensate for the loss of capacity, the lungs chronically overinflate, and the rib cage stays partially expanded all the time, resulting in a slightly rounded shape called a barrel chest Emphysema. (A) Changes in the alveoli as the disease progresses. (B) Lateral x-ray showing lung enlargement and abnormal barrel chest in emphysema.

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the bronchial tubes, often triggered by an allergic reaction. An asthma attack is characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing. Wheezing is a breathing sound caused by a partially obstructed airway. The frequency and severity of asthma attacks are influenced by a variety of factors, including allergens, environmental agents, exercise, and infection. Figure 7.11Changes in the airways during an asthma episode. (A) Before the episode, the muscles are relaxed and the airways are open. (B) During the episode, the muscles tighten and the airways fill with mucus.

o Airway inflammation is the swelling and clogging of the bronchial tubes with mucus. This usually occurs after the airway has been exposed to inhaled allergens. o A bronchospasm is a contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles, tightening and squeezing the airway shut o bronch/o means bronchi, and -spasm means involuntary contraction Exercise-induced asthma is the narrowing of the airways that develops after 5 to 15 minutes of physical exertion. Upper Respiratory Diseases o Upper respiratory infections (URI) and acute nasopharyngitis are among the terms used to describe the common cold. An upper respiratory infection can be caused by any one of 200 different viruses, the most common of which is the human rhinovirus. o Allergic rhinitis, commonly referred to as an allergy, is an allergic reaction to airborne allergens that causes an increased flow of mucus o rhin means nose, and -itis means inflammation  Nonallergic rhinitis is an inflammation of the lining of the nose caused by something other than an allergen, such as cold air, spicy food, or medication. o Croup is an acute respiratory infection in children and infants characterized by obstruction of the larynx, hoarseness, and swelling around the vocal cords resulting in a barking cough and stridor. Stridor is a harsh, high-pitched sound caused by a blockage present when breathing in. o Diphtheria is an acute bacterial infection of the throat and upper respiratory tract. The diphtheria bacteria produce toxins that can damage the heart muscle and peripheral nerves. Through immunization, the disease is now largely prevented. o Epistaxis. also known as a nosebleed, is bleeding from the nose that may be caused by dry air, injury, medication to prevent blood clotting, or high blood pressure. o Influenza, also known as the flu, is an acute, highly contagious viral infection characterized by respiratory inflammation, fever, chills, and muscle pain. Influenza is spread by respiratory droplets and occurs most commonly in epidemics during the colder months. There are many strains of the influenza virus. Some strains can be prevented by annual immunization. o Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a contagious bacterial infection of the upper respiratory tract that is characterized by recurrent bouts of a paroxysmal cough, followed by breathlessness and a noisy inspiration. Paroxysmal means sudden or spasmlike. Childhood immunization against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus are given together (DPT); however, the incidence of pertussis is on the rise. o Rhinorrhea, also known as a runny nose, is the watery flow of mucus from the nose.

o rhin/o means nose, and -rrhea means abnormal discharge o Sinusitis is an inflammation of the sinuses o sinus means sinus, and -itis means inflammation Pharynx and Larynx o Pharyngitis also known as a sore throat, is an inflammation of the pharynx o pharyng means pharynx, and -itis means inflammation  It is often a symptom of a cold, flu, or sinus infection. Pharyngitis caused by the bacteria Streptococcus is commonly referred to as strep throat o A laryngospasm is the sudden spasmodic closure of the larynx o laryng/o means larynx, and -spasm means a sudden involuntary contraction  It is sometimes associated with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD Voice Disorders o Aphonia is the loss of the ability of the larynx to produce normal speech sounds o a- means without, phon means sound or voice, and -ia means abnormal condition o Dysphonia is difficulty in speaking, which may include any impairment in vocal quality, including hoarseness, weakness, or the cracking of a boy’s voice during puberty o dys- means bad, phon means sound or voice, and -ia means abnormal condition o Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx o laryng means larynx, and -itis means inflammation  This term is also commonly used to describe voice loss that is caused by this inflammation. Trachea and Bronci o Tracheorrhagia is bleeding from the mucous membranes of the trachea o trache/o means trachea, and -rrhagia means bleeding o Bronchiectasis is the permanent dilation of the bronchi, caused by chronic infection and inflammation o bronch/i means bronchus, and -ectasis means stretching or enlargement o Bronchorrhea is an excessive discharge of mucus from the bronchi o bronch/o means bronchus, and -rrhea means abnormal flow  This is often caused by chronic bronchitis or asthma. Pleural Cavity o Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is an inflammation of the pleura, the membranes that cover the lungs and line the pleural cavity. Pleurisy, which causes pleurodynia, may result from trauma, tuberculosis, connective tissue disease, or an infection o Pleur means pleura, and -isy is a noun ending o Pleurodynia is a sharp pain that occurs when the inflamed membranes rub against each other with each inhalation o pleur/o means pleura, and -dynia means pain o Pleural effusion is the excess accumulation of fluid in the pleural space. This produces a feeling of breathlessness because it prevents the lung from fully expanding. Effusion is the escape of fluid from blood or lymphatic vessels into the tissues or into a body cavity

Figure 7.12In pleural effusion, excess fluid in the pleural cavity prevents the lung from fully expanding.

Pyothorax also known as empyema of the pleural cavity, is the presence of pus in the pleural cavity between the layers of the pleural membrane o py/o means pus, and -thorax means chest o Empyema refers to a collection of pus in a body cavity. o Hemothorax is a collection of blood in the pleural cavity o hem/o means blood, and -thorax means chest  This condition often results from chest trauma, such as a stab wound, or it can be caused by disease or surgery. o A pneumothorax is the accumulation of air in the pleural space resulting in a pressure imbalance that causes the lung to fully or partially collapse o pneum/o means lung or air, and -thorax means chest  This can have an external cause, such as a stab wound through the chest wall, or it can occur when there is a lung-disease-related rupture in the pleura that allows air to leak into the pleural space Pneumothorax is an accumulation of air or gas in the pleural space that causes the lung to collapse. In the left lung, a perforation in the pleura allowed air to escape into the pleural space. o

Lungs o Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a lung condition usually caused by trauma, pneumonia, smoke or fumes, inhaled vomit, or sepsis. Sepsis is a systemic

bacterial infection in the bloodstream. ARDS is a life-threatening condition in which inflammation in the lungs and fluid in the alveoli lead to low levels of oxygen in the blood. o Atelectasis, or collapsed lung, is the incomplete expansion of part or all of a lung due to a blockage of the air passages or pneumothorax o atel means incomplete, and -ectasis means stretching or enlargement o Pulmonary edema is an accumulation of fluid in lung tissues, especially the alveoli. Edema means swelling. Pulmonary edema is often a symptom of heart failure. o Pulmonary embolism is the sudden blockage of a pulmonary artery by foreign matter or by an embolus that has formed in the leg or pelvic region. o Pneumorrhagia is bleeding from the lungs o pneum/o means lungs, and -rrhagia means bleeding Tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), which is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, usually attacks the lungs; however, it can also affect other parts of the body. Pleurisy and coughing up blood (hemoptysis) can be symptoms of TB in the lungs. o TB occurs most commonly in individuals whose immune systems are weakened by another condition such as AIDS. A healthy individual can carry latent TB without showing symptoms of the disease. Latent means present but not active. o Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is a dangerous form of the disease that can occur when the prescribed drug regimen is not strictly followed, rendering the treatment insufficient to destroy all the bacteria. Pneumonia Named for the Affected Lung Tissue Pneumonia is a serious inflammation of the lungs in which the alveoli and air passages fill with pus and other fluids  pneumon means lung, and -ia means abnormal condition  Pneumonia is most commonly caused by an infection and often follows a cold, flu, chronic illness, or other condition, especially in the elderly, that weakens the immune system and its ability to stave off infection. There are two types of bacterial pneumonia named for the parts of the lungs These are: o Bronchopneumonia is a localized form of pneumonia that often affects the bronchioles o bronch/o means bronchial tubes, pneumon means lung, and -ia means abnormal condition  Bronchopneumonia often leads to lobar pneumonia. o Lobar pneumonia affects larger areas of the lungs, often including one or more sections, or lobes, of a lung. Double pneumonia is lobar pneumonia involving both lungs and is usually a form of bacterial pneumonia. Pneumonia Named for the Causative Agent As many as 30 causes of pneumonia have been identified; however, the most common causative agents are air pollution, bacteria, fungi, viruses, and inhaled liquid or chemicals. • Aspiration pneumonia can occur when a foreign substance, such as vomit, is inhaled into the lungs. As used here, aspiration means inhaling or drawing a foreign substance into the upper respiratory tract.

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Bacterial pneumonia is most commonly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Pneumococcal pneumonia is the only form of pneumonia that can be prevented through vaccination. • Commun...