Chapter-8 APA Style in writing a journal article PDF

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Chapter-8: APA Style of Writing Scientific Articles

8. WRITING A PAPER/ARTICLE FOR PUBLICATION IN A SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL 8.1 Report Writing Format The general format for writing a scientific report is IMRD (Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion), being preceded by an Abstract and followed by a Reference list (see APA, 2010). Manuscript (MS) to be submitted for publication in, say, Journal of Applied Psychology must be written in the style outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA). Authorities in the area recommend the contributors to always consult the latest edition of the APA Manual, if possible. It is also advisable that the contributors/authors look at the section titled “Instructions to Authors/Contributors” of the journal in which they intend to submit their paper/ article, and should strictly follow those instructions in preparing the MS for that journal. Such instructions include, among other things, paper size to use, information about spacing between lines, type & size of fonts to use, margins to leave, copies (hard & soft) of the MS to be submitted to the current editorial board, write-up style to be followed, etc.. To help the new researchers in preparing the MS for publication, a summary of the Manuscript Structure and Content (as well as information contained in the relevant sections/chapters) of the APA Publication Manual (6th edition) (APA, 2010) is presented below. 8.1.1 The title page The title page is the first page of the manuscript that should contain the following information in order: (i) the title of the MS, (ii) a running head, (iii) author’s name, (iv) institutional affiliation, and (v) an author note. The title page is identified with page number – 1 (see APA Manual, 2010, pp. 23-25and p.229). a) A title should summarize the main idea of the MS in brief, and, as per the APA manual (2010), the recommended length for a title is no more than 12 words. It should be typed in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered between the left and right margins, and positioned in the upper half of the page. One should avoid using abbreviations in a title. b) The running head, which is an abbreviated title, should be a maximum of 50 characters (counting letters, punctuation, and spaces between words). It should appear flush left in all uppercase letters at the top of the title page and all subsequent pages. c) The preferred form of an author’s name is: first name, middle initial(s), and last name. All titles (e.g., Dr., Professor) and degrees (e.g., PhD, PsyD) should be avoided. d) The institutional affiliation identifies the location (institution) where the author(s) were when the research was conducted. The institutional affiliation should be centered under the author’s name, on the next line. e) An author note should include (a) complete postal address of the author’s affiliating institution, (b) changes of affiliation (if any), (c) acknowledgements (e.g., funding sources, colleagues assisting in conducting the study, personal assistance in manuscript preparation), (d) any special circumstances (e.g., if same data were also used in a 1 

previously published report, conflict of interest, disclaimer, etc.), and (e) author(s)’ telephone number, fax number, e-mail address, and mailing address for future correspondence. 8.1.2 Abstract An abstract, a brief but comprehensive summary of the contents of the article, should start on a new page (page #2) and it should be identified with the running head. The label Abstract should appear in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered, at the top of the page. It should be typed as a single paragraph without paragraph indentation. Word limits of the abstract vary from journal to journal and typically range from 150 to 250 words. An abstract of a report of an empirical study should describe: (a) the problem under investigation, in one sentence (if possible) but not by repeating the title; (b) the study participants and their pertinent characteristics; (c) the essential features of the study method, (d) the basic findings, including confidence intervals and/or statistical significance levels; and (e) the conclusions and the implications or applications (see APA, 2010, pp. 25-27 and p.229). The abstract should be followed by relevant key words. 8.1.3 Headings and sub-headings Headings and sub-headings for different sections/sub-sections of the MS should be as follows:  The Introduction section presents the specific problem under study, states why the problem deserves new research; how does the study relate to previous work in the area; informs the reader about the primary & secondary hypotheses and objectives of the study, and what (if any) are the links to theory; and the theoretical & practical implications of the study. However, the word Introduction need not be typed; the section starts after retyping the title of the MS (see APA, 2010, p.27). 

The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted, including conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in the study. It is conventional to divide the Method section into labeled sub-sections because it enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of the methods used. The sub-sections usually include (1) a description of the characteristics of the study participants or subjects; (2) a section describing the procedures (e.g. any experimental manipulations or interventions used and how they were delivered) used in the study; (3) sampling techniques and sample size & precision; (4) measurement approaches (including the psychometric properties of the instruments used); and (5) the research design -- were the participants placed into conditions that were manipulated, or were they observed naturalistically? If multiple conditions were created, how were participants assigned to conditions -- through random assignment or some other selection mechanism? If conducting observational or naturalistic studies, one needs to provide sufficient description of the study procedures to allow the reader to fully comprehend the complexity of the study (see APA, 2010, pp.29-31).

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The Results section should summarize the collected data and the analysis performed on those data. A researcher should not hide uncomfortable results (e.g. statistically non-significant findings). Accurate, unbiased, complete, and insightful reporting of the analytic treatment of data (be it quantitative or qualitative) must be a component of all research reports (see APA 2010, pp.32-33).

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Discussion. After presenting the results, the researcher is in a position to evaluate and interpret their implications, especially with respect to the researcher’s original hypotheses. The Discussion section should be opened with a clear statement of the support or non-support for the researcher’s original hypotheses, distinguished by primary and secondary hypotheses. If hypotheses were not supported, the researcher needs to offer post hoc explanations. Similarities and differences between a researcher’s results and the work of others should be used to contextualize, confirm, and clarify her/his conclusions. The researcher emphasizes any theoretical or practical consequences of the results. She/he acknowledges the limitations of her/his research, and addresses alternative explanations of the results. The author(s) should end the Discussion section with a reasoned and justifiable commentary on the importance of the study findings (see APA, 2010, pp.35-36).

8.1.4 Tables and figures Tables and figures should be given short informative titles and should be consecutively numbered in Arabic numerals. Contributors/authors should not use suffix letters (e.g., 5a, 5b) to number tables and figures. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables or figures, those elements of the appendix should be identified with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A1 is the first table of Appendix-A; Figure C2 is the second figure of Appendix-C) (see APA, 2010, p.127). If an author/contributor reproduced or adapted a table, figure, questionnaire, or test item from a copy-righted source, she/he must obtain written permission for print and electronic reuse from the copyright holder. “Any reproduced table (or figure) or part thereof must be accompanied by a note at the bottom of the reprinted table (or in the figure caption) giving credit to the original author and to the copyright holder” (APA, 2010, page-128). It should be always remembered that “When considering inclusion of a figure,… the information value of the figure must dominate other decisions” (APA, 2010, p.151). 8.1.5 Citations in the text Citations in the text should follow the last name of author, year style. A few examples from APA (2010) are: One Work by One Author. If the name of the author appears as part of the narrative, then only the year of publication should be cited in parentheses. For example, Kessler (2003) found that among … 3 

Otherwise, both the name and the year, separated by a comma, should be placed in parentheses. For example, Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler, 2003). Works involving Two Authors. When a work has two authors, both names should be cited every time the reference occurs in the text (APA, 2010, page-175). For example, a work on Gerontology conducted jointly by M. Mather and M. R. Knight in 2006 may be cited in the text as follows: Mather and Knight (2006) observed that … Or, older adults would be slower to detect information than young adults would be (Mather & Knight, 2006). Note that if the names of the authors appear as part of the narrative (as in the first case above), use and between the names; if the authors’ names are given within parentheses (as in the second case), use & [ampersand] between the names. Works involving Multiple Authors. “When a work has three, four, or five authors”, a researcher needs to “cite all authors [last names] the first time the reference occurs; in subsequent citations”, an author/ contributor needs to “include only the surname of the first author followed by et al. (not italicized and with a period after al) and the year…” (APA, 2010, p.-175). For example, Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) found … [first citation in text] Kisangau et al. (2007) observed … [subsequent citation]. If the authors and the year are cited in parentheses, then et al. and year should be separated by a comma. When a work has six or more authors, one needs to cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al. (not italicized but with a period after al) and the year for the first and subsequent citations. For example, suppose we have entries for the following reference: Kosslyn, Koenig, Gabrieli, Tang, Marsolek, and Daly (1996) In the text, we cite them as Kosslyn, et al. (1996) Groups (or Institutions) as Authors. Sometimes, government agencies/departments, corporations, associations, and study groups serve as authors. “The names of some group authors are spelled out in the first citation and abbreviated thereafter” (APA, 2010, p.176) 4 

[e.g., Government of Bangladesh may be abbreviated as GOB; World Health Organization may be abbreviated as WHO; etc.]. In shortening the long and cumbersome name of a group of author, consideration should be the familiarity or understandability of the abbreviated form. Otherwise, it would be better to write out the name each time it occurs. Authors with the Same Surname. If a reference list includes publications by two or more primary authors with the same surname, the first author’s initials should be included in all text citations, even if the year of publication differs (APA, 2010, p.-176). Suppose we have entries for the following references: Light, I. (2006). Deflecting immigration …. Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008). The geographic expansion of …. In the text, we cite them as follows: Among studies, we review M. A. Light and Light (2008) and I. Light (2006). Citing Secondary Sources. Secondary sources are used only if unavoidable, e.g., when the original work is out of print, unavailable through usual sources, or not available in English. In that case, secondary source is given in the reference list; in text, the original work is named and a citation for the secondary source is given. “For example, if Allport’s work is cited in Nicholson and” a contributor “did not read Allport’s work,” she/he will have to “list the Nicholson reference in the reference list. In the text”, she/he uses “the following citation” (APA, 2010, p.178): Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003). Personal Communications. Personal communications such as private letters, memos, some electronic communications, personal interviews, telephone conversations, etc., are not included in the reference list (see APA, 2010, p.179). Personal communications are to be cited in text only. Writers/contributors need to give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible, for example: T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001) Direct Quotation of sources. APA (2010) observes that for material directly quoted from another author’s work or from one’s own previously published work, material replicated from a test item, and verbatim instructions to participants should be reproduced word for word. Such quoting should always be accompanied by the author, year, and specific page citation or paragraph number for non-paginated material, and also include a complete reference in the reference list. APA (2010, p.171) maintains, “If the quotation comprises 40 or more words”, it should be displayed “in a freestanding block of text”, omitting the quotation marks. APA (op. 5 

cit) continues, “Start such a block quotation on a new line and indent the block about a half inch from the left margin (in the same position as a new paragraph). If there are additional paragraphs within the quotation, indent the first line of each an additional half inch. … At the end of a block quotation, cite the quoted source and the page or paragraph number in parentheses after the final punctuation mark”. For example, Co-presence does not ensure intimate interaction among all group members. Consider large-scale social gatherings in which hundreds or thousands of people gather in a location to perform a ritual or celebrate an event. In these instances, participants are able to see the visible manifestation of the group, the physical gathering, yet their ability to make direct, intimate connections with those around them is limited by the sheer magnitude of the assembly. (Purcell, 1997, pp. 111-112, as cited in APA 2010) 8.1.6 References According to APA (2010), the Reference list should start on a new page, and the word References should appear in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered. For the reference list, authors/contributors use a hanging indent format where the first line of each reference is set flush left and subsequent lines are indented (leaving four character-spaces, counting from the 1st letter of the first word of the first line of that reference). All reference entries are to be double-spaced, and the references are to be arranged in alphabetic order by the last name [surname] of the first author involved in each study. Living in the 21st Century, we need to bear in mind that with the advent of publishing in the online environment, some former models of referencing material no longer apply. APA (2010, pp.187-188) recommends that when using Electronic Sources, one should provide information about the uniform resource locators (URLs)1 and digital object identifiers (DOIs)2. Contributors should include the DOI in the reference if one is assigned. If no DOI is assigned to the content and a contributor retrieved it online, the contributor should include the home page URL (e.g., Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxx) for the journal, newsletter, or magazine in the reference. Please find below a few examples (reproduced) from the APA publication Manual (APA, 2010, pp. 198-206) showing the major elements of the most common types of references. 8.1.6.1 Periodicals (journals, magazines, newspapers, and newsletters).  1

The components of a URL are as follows: (1) Protocol, (2) Host or domain name, (3) Path to document, and (4) File name of specific document. For example, http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct00/workplace.html (1) (2) (3) (4)

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A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string assigned by a registration agency (the International DOI Foundation) to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the internet. APA recommends that when DOIs are available, you include them for both print and electronic sources. The DOI is typically located on the first page of the electronic journal article, near the copyright notice. The DOI may also be hidden under a button labeled Article, CrossRef, PubMed, or another full-text vendor name. All DOI numbers begin with a 10 and contain a prefix and a suffix separated by a slash.

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The general form of reference for periodicals is as follows (see APA, 2010): Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx (a) Journal article with DOI Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the survival times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24, 225-229. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.225 (b) Journal article without DOI (DOI not available) Sillick, T.J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38-48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008). The geographic expansion of Mexican immigrants in the United States and its implications for local law enforcement. Law Enforcement Executive Forum Journal, 8(11), 73-82. (c) In-press article posted in a preprint archive Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf [A Note from APA 2010: The exact URL is used because the article is informally published and not yet indexed on a journal website.] (d) Magazine article Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(5), 26-29. (e) Online magazine article Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/ (f) Online newspaper article Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com (g) Abstract as original source Lassen, S. R., Steele, M. M., & Sailor, W. (2006). The relationship of school-wide positive behavior support to academic achievement in an urban middle school. 7 

Psychology in the Schools, http://interscience.wiley.com

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8.1.6.2 Books (Books, Reference books, Edited books, Chapter in a book). Reference formats for an entire book are (see APA, 2010): Author, A. A. (1967). Title of work. Place of publication: Publisher. Author, A. A. (1997). Title of work. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Author, A. A. (2006). Title of work. doi:xxxxx Editor, A. A. (Ed.). (1986). Title of work. Place of publication: Publisher. The general format for a chapter in a book is: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1995). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xx-xx). Location: Publisher. APA (2010, p.203) notes, when the author and publisher are the same, the word Author should be used as the name of the publisher. A few examples (from APA 2010) of referencing books (or chapter in a book) follow: Entire book, print version -Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. Lo...