Chapter 9.F The Eclipse stage: Contribution from the Late Copper Age cultures from the book Neo-Eneolithic Literacy in Southeastern Europe PDF

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9.F The Eclipse stage: Contribution from the Late Copper Age cultures 9.F.a A quantitative collapse, but not in the development of the sign system The Eclipse stage of the Danube script, which coincided with as transitional period to the Bronze Age, gathers 2.3% of the signs in total, 2.0% of the in...

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9.F The Eclipse stage: Contribution from the Late Copper Age cultures 9.F.a A quantitative collapse, but not in the development of the sign system The Eclipse stage of the Danube script, which coincided with as transitional period to the Bronze Age, gathers 2.3% of the signs in total, 2.0% of the inscriptions, and 2.1% of the inscribed objects (including data when the distinct culture is not specified). These figures document the decay of the experiment with writing technology that happened from 4000 to 3300 BCE. The collapse was quantitative, not in the development of the sign system as documented by the wide utilization of sophisticated techniques such as the ligature and the occurrence of longer inscriptions during this period than in general. The gradual transformation of the old Neolithic and Copper Age civilizations into Bronze Age ones lead to an ethno-cultural milieu without, or scanty, literacy. It is out of the frame of this present work to investigate the role played by the major social and economic changes that took place between the fourth and third millennia BCE. There were many factors, such as the impact of Proto-Indo-European nomadic, or pastoral semi-nomadic, small bands movements westward. After 4400 BCE, these groups infiltrated and irrupted life in existing settlements of the agricultural cultures, migrating, irradiating or inroading toward the middle and lower Danubian Basin from three directions: North Pontic and North Caspian steppes, Helladic-Aegean-Anatolian Bronze Age territories and Central Europe (Tasić N. 1983: 20; Gimbutas 1991: 318, 359; Mallory 1989; Cavalli-Sforza 2000; Haarmann 2002; Marler 2001; and ibidem 2003; Merlini 2004a). Further, there were dramatic climatic changes that precipitated a long period of drought and a great deal of internal sociopolitical economic instability during the Late Copper Age, which affected sedentary agricultural cultures throughout Southeastern Europe. According to Todorova, the effects of the constant increase in average annual temperature in the post-glacial period brought positive effects for the ecological system, but its culmination caused catastrophic and lasting events in the southern Balkans. Throughout the Late Neolithic (5400-4700 CAL. BCE according to her, but restricted to DCP 12-13 = 5000-4800 CAL. BCE by DatDas), the enlargement of the Neolithization process to central Europe and the development of huge settlement agglomerations were associated to the warm and humid climate of the Balkans. During the Copper Age (4750 - 4200/4000 CAL. BCE according to her, but DCP 14-17 = 48004400 CAL. BCE according to DatDas), the temperatures increased and, around 4600 CAL. BCE, the Copper Age cultures of the Southern Balkans were extinguished, while those north of the Rhodope maintains flourished. The Danube civilization disappeared c. 3800 CAL. BCE, following which a period of ecological crisis is to be noted (Todorova 2007: 2-3). The termination of the Danube script was definite even if through a twilight along seven-eight centuries, perhaps symptomatic of the ‘abrupt termination’ of the ‘prosperous Chalcolithic cultures’ that occurred quasisimultaneously in various parts of Southeastern Europe (Renfrew 1979: 142-143). The writing system lost its raison d’être when the very essence of this civilization ceased to exist (Paliga 1993). It mirrored the changes in life of the local, sedentary population due to a general state of instability and insecurity caused by permanent interference between cultures and ecological crisis. The ending of the Danube civilization happened along different dimensions documented by the archaeological record. Instability of settlements is reflected by thin cultural layers or even absence of habitation layers. The reappearance of pit and poorly constructed dwellings indicates a lower life standard than in the preceding period, when well-built surface dwellings were predominant. Dramatically decreasing of copper goods indicates the impossibility of preserving a continuous flux of mining and processing operations (Luca, Suciu 2008). In addition to the system(s) of writing, proto-cities, technological expertise, religious beliefs associated with typical cultic artifacts such as female figurines, and other items of cultural heritage were completely abandoned after 3300-3000 BCE. It is under discussion if Cretan and Cypriot civilizations, in the Aegean relative isolation, were the last expression of what Gimbutas termed “Old Europe” and if Cretan and Cypriot syllabaries can be traced back to the “Old European” graphemes (Paliga 1989; ibidem 1993). DatDas registers only 125 signs, 91 inscriptions and 90 inscribed objects associated with the Eclipse stage of the Danube script. However, from the viewpoint of the life cycle of the script the economic social and ethnic transformations that completely transformed the existent society happened throughout the Middle Copper age. The Middle Copper age was a strong transitional phase and the Late Copper Age was a consolidation of it. In the Eclipse stage of the Danube script, writing technology endured principally in cultures that emerged as a synthesis from a series of direct confrontations between the background of old local agricultural communities and foreign migration elements. The Cucuteni A-B - B - Trypillia C culture, in Romania and Ukraine, rates 32.0%. The other three resisting cultures were the Coţofeni II (24.0%) and Kostolać cultures (12.8%) in the 661

Republic of Serbia, and the Varna II-III in Bulgaria (8.8%). For the remaining inscribed artifacts, the culture is unknown or not settled. The geographic distribution of the script confirms the regional placement of the previous Fall stage, making exception the entry of Hungary and the exit of the Republic of Moldova. Nearly one sign on two is produced in Romania. Nearly one sign on four comes from Bulgaria and nearly one sign on five from Ukraine. However, the concentration in two territories (Northeastern-central Bulgaria plus Southern Romania and Northeastern Romania plus Republic of Moldova and Eastern Ukraine), which characterizes the Fall stage, is surpassed by a more equilibrate distribution. Geographical distribution of the signs comparing the Eclipse stage of the script and the montant global Country

Eclipse stage Absolute value

Greece

Totality of the signs %

Absolute value

%

-

-

432

7.97%

29

23.20%

1331

24.55%

F.Y.R.O.M.

-

-

93

1.72%

Albania

-

-

17

0.31%

Montenegro

-

-

4

0.07%

22

17.60%

1461

26.95%

-

-

11

0.20%

Romania

41

32.80%

1572

29.00%

Hungary

10

8.00%

285

5.26%

Slovakia

-

-

26

0.48%

Czech Republic

-

-

31

0.57%

Croatia

-

10

0.18%

Republic of Moldova

-

-

11

0.20%

Ukraine

23

18.40%

65

1.20%

Austria

-

-

4

0.07%

Germany

-

25

0.46%

Kosovo

-

43

0.79%

Bulgaria

Republic of Serbia Bosnia Herzegovina

Total

-

125

5421

During this period, Southern Europe as a whole experimented the collapse of the script. However, the sign production in Ukraine was four times than throughout the previous stage. More than 1/3 of the Ukrainian signs belong to the final period of the script. This figure put further fuel into the conjecture that a late script related to the Danube script, and not the Danube script itself, occurred in the Precucuteni-Cucuteni-AriuşdTrypillia cultural complex (Merlini 2004b; ibidem 2007c; ibidem 2008d). In the Trypillia C culture, the last phase of this civilization, the strong utilization of writing technology in both the basin of the river Bug and the Băltsi Depression was related to a directive organization of settlements characterized by hundreds of dwellings arranged within an obvious plan and occurrence of fortified walls, ditches, and banks. Large size and planned layout of these urban agglomerations were consistent with other features such as coordination of collective efforts, semi-egalitarian social relations, urban style life, and elaborated rules of collective behavior. Such central organization of the community (the chiefdom stage, according to Ellis 1984: 197-199) 662

constituted the foundation of the later hierarchal society. Furthermore, the Trypillia urban agglomerations were centers of large territories with a populations of tens of thousands inhabitants. The surrounding areas also included agricultural lands, villages of various sizes, and sacred places (Wood 1978; Šylov 1992). A marginal presence of the script lasted in the Republic of Serbia due to the Coţofeni I culture.

Fig. 9.150 – Pattern on the geographical distribution of the Danube script throughout its Eclipse stage. As evidenced in chapter 8, DatDas substantiates Čapaevka (Ukraine) as major site for the Eclipse stage of the system of writing. After Čapaevka, main nodes of the network of the script during its ultimate stage included (in order of importance for sign production) Lozna (Romania), Bazovets and Durankulak (Bulgaria), Gyor Szabadret (Hungary), and Lepenska potkapina (Republic of Serbia). They were followed by Băile Herculane – Pestera Hoţilor (Romania). Less significant was Dula Ostrikovac (Republic of Serbia). Marginal was the production of signs at Sanislău (Romania). Perperikon (Bulgaria), Berea (Romania), Nikolaevka (Ukraine), Calu-Piatra Şoimului and Nandru-Peştera Curată (Romania).

663

Fig. 9.151 – The five-range hierarchical network of sites with signs throughout the Eclipse stage of the Danube script.

9.F.b Illustrative Cucuteni A-B – B - C - Trypillia C cases The contribution of the Cucuteni A-B – B - Trypillia C culture to the script thorough the Late Copper Age is 32.0%. In this phase of the great Ariuşd-Cucuteni-Trypillia cultural complex, the script is present mainly in Ukraine (57.5%), where the pivotal settlements reached the climax of their development in term of size and 664

organization, but also in Romania (42.5%). The Cucuteni A-B phase lasted 280-300 years (DCP 21-22 = 4100-3800 CAL BCE). The Cucuteni B - Trypillia C1 phase endured 300-350 years (DCP 23-25 = 3800 3500 CAL. BCE). Compare 3850-3500 CAL. BCE in Mantu 1998. According to Gimbutas, the Cucuteni B Trypillia C phase flourished between 3750 and 3500 BCE (Gimbutas 1991: 101), and 3780-3320 CAL. BCE, according to Wechler (1994). In the eastern region, the Trypillia CI-γII lasted up to 2750 CAL. BCE (Ursulescu 2008). For the Cucuteni A-B and B phases, it is tempting to establish the evolution of the single stages (Cucuteni AB A-B1 and A-B2; Cucuteni B1, B2), because of the small number of radiocarbon dates. They are only determined by archaeological analysis so far. In the latest phase of the Ariuşd-Cucuteni-Trypillia cultural complex, the climate grew increasingly arid, rainfall decreased significantly, the environmental conditions became less predictable and more instable, agricultural productivity generally declined, and a scarcity of agrarian food resources ensued. The economy became increasingly dependent on stockbreeding without excluding a sedentary agricultural component in areas sufficiently rich in agricultural resources1 (Pashkevich 1997), the territorial space became fragmented, 2 several local centers of power rose, and defensive structures became more common. The environmental, political and socio-cultural shifts gradually imposed a military-oriented chiefdom society with elite burials and lineages with conspicuous symbols of kin identity. The Gorodyšl/Gorodsk-Foltešti culture took the place of the Trypillia communities in the Ukrainian territory. 3 The Cucuteni communities of the Romanian territory were replaced by the Horodiştea-Erbiceni and Folteşti Cernavodă II cultures with horizon c. 3500/3400 – 2750 (Ursulescu 2008). The old sites were subjected to an intensive reduction and decay, eventually disappearing. The emerging cultures have generally been attributed to the Transitional period during the Bronze Age that encompassed from the Urals to the east to the lower Danube to the west. DatDas records script occurrences in four Cucuteni A-B – B - Trypillia C settlements. Čapaevka (Ukraine) is the most significant, registering 55% of the total recurrence of signs of the period. It is one of the pivotal centres that elaborated the script through innovation during the Copper Age. At Čapaevka, signs are present on vessels (rim/upper body area) and female figurines (back). Lozna (Moldavia, Romania) concentrates 37.5% of the sign frequencies clustered on a single potshard. Nikolaevka (Ukraine) gathers 7.5% of the total occurrences with painted signs on rim/body area of Trypillia C vessels. Calu-Piatra Şoimului (Romania) clusters 5.0% of the presences, with signs on the chest of human female figurines. In the Cucuteni A-B – B-Trypillia C culture, the presence of the script is most significant on vessels, which bear signs restrictedly over rim/upper body area. Potshards follow the vessels. They are also from the rim/upper body area. The other typology of inscribed artifacts is constituted by anthropomorphic female figurines. Here signs are exhibited on both chest and back. The inscribed objects have been found within, and in proximity to common household areas, as well as in sanctuaries, pits and cult complexes (Lazarovici C.-M. 2004). The examples document that the use of literacy in Cucuteni – Trypillia culture is mainly related to magic religious beliefs and liturgies (Rybakov 1965). Inscriptions direct and enforce the messages from the divinity and make connections within and amongst households and communities (Gimbutas 1991: 320). Object type distribution of the Cucuteni A-B – B – Trypillia C signs Object type Absolute value % Figurine: Human Potshard

4 15

10.00% 37.50%

Vessel

21

52.50%

Total

40

1

Such as Mikhailovka, for example. In the Trypillia space, one of the local groups (the Vykhvatintsy group) expanded from the Middle Dniestr into the north-western Pontic Lowland. Later, it developed into the Usatovo variant of the Late Trypillia culture. Subsequently, the Usatovo group spread over a vast area of the Prut-Dniestr-Southern Bug interfluve, and further west into the lower Danube valley and Romanian Moldova. At the same time, another Trypillia group, the Brynzeny group, stretched out to the north, to eastern Volhynia, where the Troyan variant emerged. A subsequent movement led to the establishment of the Sofievka variant in the Middle Dniepr (Dolukhanov and Séfériadès 2008: 24-5). 3 It is equivalent to the phase Tripillya CII, according to Passek’s timeline. 2

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The form and decoration of the inscribed pots and anthropomorphic female figurines that I present differ from the previous cultural phases. They are possibly related with transformations that occurred in the religious life during Cucuteni A-B - B and Trypillia BII-CI phases (Monah 1997: 222). Both pottery and figurines were part of sacred inventories employed in communitarian sanctuaries and household shrines. They were used in conjunction with other liturgical objects (zoomorphic statuettes, anthropomorphic pots, etc.) during a wide range of rituals. They accompanied offerings, dances and representation of myths throughout religious celebrations and cult practices (Gimbutas 1984). Amongst the painted signs on rim/body area of Trypillia C vessels discovered at Nikolaevka, significant is a possible pictogram of deer horns with mythological meaning, (Dergachev, Manzura 1991: 277, tab. 56, 4). The features of the pot, and the rendering of the sign, document the cultural evolution of this culture through trade contacts, cultural infiltration and, afterward, massive intrusions of nomadic and semi-nomadic communities of stockbreeders situated in the steppes of the North and Northwest of the Black Sea region. Subsequently, these contacts/impacts contributed to transform the former Cucuteni-Trypillia cultural complex into the Gorodsk-Foltešti complex, which represents the beginning of the transition into the Bronze Age. It has been noted, that particularly during the meager periods, nomadic groups tended to form larger agglomerations headed by elite families. Such heads strove to gain military control over grazing territories and migratory routes. The defense from, and aggression towards, neighboring groups became issues of central consideration due to this appropriation of stock, land, and alternative resources. Exploitation of agricultural communities was by far the most important tasks (Khazanov 1984; Cribb 1991). In this period, the expansion of stockbreeding communities proceeded in an environment that was gradually increasing in aridity, as acknowledgeable throughout the Northern Eurasia (Dolukhanov and Séfériadès 2008: 23). The sequence of signs, occurring in a circle on a Trypillia CI-γI pot from Čapaevka (Masson et al. 1982, fig. LXXXIII/22; Videiko 2003: 122), gives the impression of a decoration at first glance. It seemingly exhibits symmetry of a complex and sequential ornamental pattern with an X positioned as barycentre. However, if one checks carefully the aligned marks, one can find that they are not symmetrically positioned. In fact, the fifth sign, starting from the X, (V-motifs) is reversed: on the right one sees a >, on a left a...