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Coulson & Richardson's CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, Sixth edition Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer J, M. Coulson and J. F. Rich...
Coulson & Richardson's CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1
Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer
Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, Sixth edition Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer J, M. Coulson and J. F. Richardson with J. R. Backhurst and J. H. Marker Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Fourth edition Particle Technology and Separation Processes J. M. Coulson and J. F. Richardson with J, R, Backhurst and J. H. Marker Chemical Engineering, Volume 3, Third edition Chemical & Biochemical Reactors & Process Control Edited by J. F. Richardson and D. G. Peacock Chemical Engineering, Volume 4, Second edition Solutions to the Problems in Volume 1 J. R. Backhurst and J. H. Marker Chemical Engineering, Volume 5, Second edition Solutions to the Problems in Volumes 2 and 3 J. R, Backhurst and J, H. Marker Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, Third edition Chemical Engineering Design R. K. Sinnott
Coulson & Richardson's
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SIXTH EDITION
Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer J. M. COULSON Late Emeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering University of NewcastleuponTyne and
J. F. RICHARDSON Department of Chemical Engineering University of Wales, Swansea WITH
J. R. BACKHURST and J. H. MARKER Department of Chemical and Process Engineering University of NewcastleuponTyne
TTERWQRTH I N E M A N N OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON
JOHANNESBURG
MELBOURNE NEW DELHI
B utter worth Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 018012041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd "CX ^ mem':'er of the Reed Elsevier pk group
First published by Pergarnon Press 1954 Second edition 1964 Third edition 1977 Fourth edition 1990 Fifth edition 1996 Fifth edition (revised) 1997, 1999 Sixth edition 1999 © J. ML Coulson, J. F. Richardson, J. H. Marker and J. R. Backhurst 1990, 1996, 1999 Ail rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0 7506 4444 3
Typeset by Laser Words, Madras, India Printed in Great Britain by The Bath Press, Bath
Contents Professor /. M. Coulson
xiii
Preface to Sixth Edition
xv
Preface to Fifth Edition
xvii
Preface to Fourth Edition
xix
Preface to Third Edition
xxi
Preface to Second Edition
xxiii
Preface to First Edition
xxv
Acknowledgements
xxvii
1. Units and Dimensions .,1 1.2
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
I
Introduction Systems of units 1.2.1 The centimetregramsecond (cgs) system 1.2.2 The metrekilogramsecond (inks system) and the Syst&me International d'Unites (SI) .2.3 The footpoundsecond (fps) system .2.4 The British engineering system ,2,5 Noncoherent system employing pound mass and pound force simultaneously .2.6 Derived units .2.7 Thermal (heat) units .2.8 Molar units .2.9 Electrical units Conversion of units Dimensional analysis Buckingham's Fl theorem Redefinition of the length and mass dimensions ] .6.1 Vector and scalar quantities 1.6.2 Quantity mass and inertia mass Further reading References Nomenclature
Part 1 Fluid Flow
5 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 12 15 20 20 21 22 22 22
25
2. Flow of Fluids—Energy and Momentum Relationships 2.1 2.2
I 2 2 4
Introduction Internal energy
2? 27 27
V
VI
CONTENTS 2.3
2.4
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
Types of 2.3.1 The incompressible fluid (liquid) 2.3.2 The ideal gas 2.3.3 The nonideal gas The fluid in motion 2.4.1 Continuity 2.4.2 Momentum changes in a 2.4.3 Energy of a fluid in motion 2.4.4 Pressure and fluid head 2.4.5 Constant flow per unit area 2.4.6 Separation Pressurevolume relationships 2.5.1 Incompressible 2.5.2 Compressible Rotational or vortex motion in a 2.6.1 The forced vortex 2.6.2 The free vortex Further reading References Nomenclature
fluid
fluid
fluids fluids fluid
3. Flow of Liquids in Pipes and Open Channels 3.1 3:2 3.3
3.4
3.5 3.6 3.7
58
Introduction The nature of fluid flow 3.2.1 Flow over a surface 3.2.2 Flow in a pipe Newtonian fluids 3.3.1 Shearing characteristics of a Newtonian fluid 3.3.2 Pressure drop for flow of Newtonian liquids through a pipe 3.3.3 Reynolds number and shear stress 3.3.4 Velocity distributions and volumetric flowrates for streamline flow 3.3.5 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe 3.3.6 Velocity distributions and volumetric flowrates for turbulent flow 3.3.7 Flow through curved pipes 3.3.8 Miscellaneous friction losses 3.3.9 Flow over banks of tubes 3.3.10 Flow with a free surface NonNewtonian Fluids 3.4.1 Steadystate sheardependent behaviour 3.4.2 Timedependent behaviour 3.4.3 Viscoelastic behaviour 3.4.4 Characterisation of nonNewtonian fluids 3.4.5 Dimensionless characterisation of viscoelastic flows 3.4.6 Relation between rheology and structure of material 3.4.7 Streamline flow in pipes and channels of regular geometry 3.4.8 Turbulent flow 3.4.9 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow Further reading References N omenclature
4. Flow of Compressible Fluids 4. i 4.2 4.3
introduction Flow of gas through a nozzle or orifice 4.2.1 Isothermal 4.2.2 Nonisothermal Velocity of propagation of a pressure wave
30 31 31 34 39 39 41 44 46 47 47 48 48 48 50 52 54 55 56 56
58 59 60 61 62 62 63 74 75 82 83 87 87 93 94 103 105 113 114 118 120 120 121 136 138 138 139 140
143
flow flow
143 143 144 147 152
CONTENTS 4.4
4.5
4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
VI i
Con vergingdiverging nozzles for gas flow 4.4.1 Maximum flow and critical pressure ratio 4.4.2 The pressure and area for flow 4.4.3 Effect of backpressure on flow in nozzle Flow in a pipe 4.5.1 Energy balance for flow of ideal gas 4.5.2 Isothermal flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 4.5.3 Nonisothermal flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 4.5.4 Adiabatic flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 4.5.5 Flow of nonideal gases Shock waves Further reading References Nomenclature
5. Flow of Multiphase Mixtures 5.1 5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5 5.6 5.7
Introduction Twophase gas (vapour)liquid 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Flow regimes and flow patterns 5.2.3 Holdup 5.2.4 Pressure, momentum, and energy relations 5.2.5 Erosion Flow of solidsliquid mixtures 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 Homogeneous nonsettling suspensions 5.3.3 Coarse solids 5.3.4 Coarse solids in horizontal 5.3.5 Coarse solids in vertical Flow of gassol ids mixtures 5.4.1 General considerations 5.4.2 Horizontal transport 5.4.3 Vertical transport 5.4.4 Practical applications Further reading References Nomenclature
181 flow
flow flow
6. Flow and Pressure Measurement 6.1 6.2
6.3
6.4 6.5 6.6
154 154 156 158 158 159 160 169 170 174 .174 1.78 179 ! 79
Introduction Fluid pressure 6.2.1 Static pressure 6.2.2 Pressure measuring devices 6.2.3 Pressure signal transmission — the differential pressure cell 6.2.4 Intelligent pressure transmitters 6.2.5 Impact pressure Measurement of fluid flow 6.3.1 The pilot tube 6.3.2 Measurement by flow through a constriction 6.3.3 The orifice meter 6.3.4 The nozzle 6.3.5 The venturi meter 6.3.6 Pressure recovery in orificetype meters 6.3.7 Variable area meters — rotameters 6.3.8 The notch or weir 6.3.9 Other methods of measuring flowrates Further reading References Nomenclature
38! 182 182 183 186 187 194 195 195 196 198 198 210 213 213 214 223 224 226 227 2.29
232 232 233 233 234 237 240 242 243 244 245 248 254 255 256 257 261 264 272 272 272
Vlii
CONTENTS
7. Liquid Mixing 7.1
Introduction — types of mixing 7.1.1 Singlephase liquid mixing 7.1.2 Mixing of immiscible liquids 7.1.3 Gasliquid mixing 7.1.4 Liquidsolids mixing 7.1.5 Gasliquidsolids mixing 7.1.6 Solidssolids mixing 7.1.7 Miscellaneous mixing applications 7.2 Mixing mechanisms 7.2.1 Laminar mixing 7.2.2 Turbulent mixing 7.3 Scaleup of stirred vessels 7.4 Power consumption in stirred vessels 7.4.1 Low viscosity systems 7.4.2 High viscosity systems 7.5 Flow patterns in stirred tanks 7.6 Rate and time for mixing 7.7 Mixing equipment 7.7.1 Mechanical agitation 7.7.2 Portable mixers 7.7.3 Extruders 7.7.4 Static mixers 7.7.5 Other types of mixer 7.8 Mixing in continuous systems 7.9 Further reading 7.10 References 7.11 Nomenclature
8. Pumping of Fluids
8.3
8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9
Introduction Pumping equipment for liquids 8.2.1 Reciprocating pump 8.2.2 Positivedisplacement rotary pumps 8.2.3 The centrifugal pump Pumping equipment for gases 8.3.1 Fans and rotary compressors 8.3.2 Centrifugal and turbocompressors 8.3.3 The reciprocating piston compressor 8.3.4 Power required for the compression of gases The use of compressed air for pumping 8.4.1 The airlift pump Vacuum pumps Power requirements for pumping through pipelines 8.6.1 Liquids 8.6.2 Gases Further reading References Nomenclature
274 274 274 274 275 275 275 275 276 277 277 279 280 282 282 288 294 298 301 301 306 306 307 310 310 31 i 311 312
314 314 315 316 321 329 344 344 346 347 347 358 358 364 367 368 374 376 376 377
Part 2 Heat Transfer
379
9. Heat Transfer
381
9.1 9.2
Introduction Basic considerations 9.2.1 Individual and overall coefficients of heat transfer 9.2.2 Mean temperature difference
38 i 381 381 384
CONTENTS 9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12 9.13 9.14
Heat transfer by conduction 9.3.1 Conduction through a plane wall 9.3.2 Thermal resistances in series 9.3.3 Conduction through a thickwalled tube 9.3.4 Conduction through a spherical shell and to a particle 9.3.5 Unsteady state conduction 9.3.6 Conduction with internal heat source Heat transfer by convection 9.4.1 Natural and forced convection 9.4.2 Application of dimensional analysis to convection 9.4.3 Forced convection in tubes 9.4.4 Forced convection outside tubes 9.4.5 Flow in noncircular sections 9.4.6 Convection to spherical particles 9.4.7 Natural convection Heat transfer by radiation 9.5.1 Introduction 9.5.2 Radiation from a black body 9.5.3 Radiation from real surfaces 9.5.4 Radiation transfer between black surfaces 9.5.5 Radiation transfer between grey surfaces 9.5.6 Radiation from gases Heat transfer in the condensation of vapours 9.6.1 Film coefficients for vertical and inclined surfaces 9.6.2 Condensation on vertical and horizontal tubes 9.6.3 Dropwise condensation 9.6.4 Condensation of mixed vapours Boiling liquids 9.7.1 Conditions for boiling 9.7.2 Types of boiling 9.7.3 Heat transfer coefficients and heat 9.7.4 Analysis based on bubble characteristics 9.7.5 Subcooled boiling 9.7.6 Design considerations Heat transfer in reaction vessels 9.8. f Helical cooling coils 9.8.2 Jacketed vessels 9.8.3 Time required for heating or cooling Shell and tube heat exchangers 9.9.1 General description 9.9.2 Basic components 9.9.3 Mean temperature difference in multipass exchangers 9.9.4 Film coefficients 9.9.5 Pressure drop in heat exchangers 9.9.6 Heat exchanger design 9.9.7 Heat exchanger performance 9.9.8 Transfer units ' Other forms of equipment 9.10.1 Finnedtube units 9.10.2 Platetype exchangers 9.10.3 Spiral heat exchangers 9.10.4 Compact heat exchangers 9.10.5 Scrapedsurface heat exchangers Thermal insulation 9.11.1 Heat losses through lagging 9.11.2 Economic thickness of lagging 9.11.3 Critical thickness of lagging Further reading References ' Nomenclature
IX
flux
387 387 390 392 392 394 412 4.14 414 4!5 417 426 433 434 435 438 438 439 441 447 458 465 471 471 474 476 478 482 482 484 486 490 492 494 496 496 499 501 503 503 506 510 517 523 526 534 535 540 540 548 550 550 553 555 555 557 557 56! 562. 566
X
CONTENTS
Part 3 Mass Transfer
571
10. Mass Transfer
573
10.1 Introduction 10.2 Diffusion in binary gas mixtures 10.2.1 Properties of binary mixtures 10.2.2 Equimolecular counterdiffusion 10.2.3 Mass transfer through a stationary second component 10.2.4 Diffusivities of gases and vapours 10.2.5 Mass transfer velocities 10.2.6 General case for gasphase mass transfer 10.2.7 Diffusion as a mass flux 10.2.8 Thermal diffusion 10.2.9 Unsteadystate mass transfer 10.3 Multicomponent gasphase systems 10.3.1 Molar flux in terms of effective diffusivity 10.3.2 Maxwell's law of diffusion 10.4 Diffusion in liquids 10.4.1 Liquid phase diffusivities 10.5 Mass transfer across a phase boundary 10.5.1 The twofilm theory 10.5.2 The penetration theory 10.5.3 The filmpenetration theory 10.5.4 Mass transfer to a sphere in a homogenous fluid 10.5.5 Other theories of mass transfer 10.5.6 Interfacial turbulence 10.5.7 Mass transfer coefficients 10.5.8 Countercurrent mass transfer and transfer units 10.6 Mass transfer and chemical reaction 10.6.1 Steadystate process 10.6.2 Unsteadystate process 10.7 Mass transfer and chemical reaction in a catalyst pellet 10.7.1 Flat platelets " 10.7.2 Spherical pellets 10.7.3 Other particle shapes 10.7.4 Mass transfer and chemical reaction with a mass transfer resistance external to the pellet 10.8 Practical studies of mass transfer 10.8.1 The jfactor of Chilton and Colburn for flow in tubes 10.8.2 Mass transfer at plane surfaces 10.8.3 Effect of surface roughness and form drag 10.8.4 Mass transfer from a fluid to the surface of particles 10.9 Further reading 10.10 References 10.11 Nomenclature
573 575 575 576 577 581 586 587 588 589 590 593 593 594 596 597 599 600 602 6J4 617 618 618 619 621 626 626 631 634 636 638 642 644 646 646 649 65i 651 654 655 656
Part 4 Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer
661
11. The Boundary Layer
663
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4
Introduction The momentum equation The streamline portion of the boundary layer The turbulent boundary layer 31.4.1 The turbulent portion 11.4.2 The laminar sublayer 11.5 Boundary layer theory applied to pipe 11.5.1 Entry conditions 11.5.2 Application of the boundarylayer theory
flow
663 668 670 675 675 677 681 681 682
CONTENTS ! 1.6 The boundary layer for heat transfer 11.6.1 Introduction 11.6.2 The heat balance i 1.6.3 Heat transfer for streamline flow over a plane surface — constant surface temperature 31.6,4 Heat transfer for streamline flow over a plane surface — constant surface heat flux 11.7 The boundary layer for mass transfer 11.8 Further reading 11.9 References 11.10 Nomenclature
12. Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Transfer by molecular diffusion 12.2.1 Momentum transfer 12.2.2 Heat transfer 12.2.3 Mass transfer 12.2.4 Viscosity 12.2.5 Thermal conductivity 12.2.6 Diffusivity 12.3 Eddy transfer 12.3.1 The nature of turbulent flow 12.3.2 Mixing length and eddy kinematic viscosity 12.4 Universal velocity profile 12.4.1 The turbulent core 12.4.2 The laminar sublayer 12.4.3 The buffer layer 12.4.4 Velocity profile for all regions 12.4.5 Velocity gradients 12.4.6 Laminar sublayer and buffer layer thicknesses 12.4.7 Variation of eddy kinematic viscosity 12.4.8 Approximate form of velocity profile in turbulent region 12.4.9 Effect of curvature of pipe wall on shear stress 12.5 Friction factor for a smooth pipe 12.6 Effect of surface roughness on shear stress 12.7 Simultaneous momentum, heat and mass transfer 12.8 Reynolds analogy 12.8.1 Simple form of analogy between momentum, heat and mass transfer 12.8.2 Mass transfer with bulk flow 12.8.3 TaylorPrandtl modification of Reynolds analogy for heat transfer and mass transfer 12.8.4 Use of universal velocity profile in Reynolds analogy 12.8.5 Flow over a plane surface 12.8.6 Flow in a pipe 12.9 Further reading 12.10 References 12.11 Nomenclature
13. Humidification and Water Cooling 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Humidification terms 13.2.1 Definitions 13.2.2 Wetbulb temperature 13.2.3 Adiabatic saturation temperature 13.3 Humidity data for the airwater system 13.3.1 Temperaturehumidity chart 13.3.2 Enthalpyhumidity chart
XI 685 685 685 687 690 691 692 692 692
694 694 696 696 696 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 706 706 707 707 708 708 709 7SO 711 7 i 2 713 715 717 720 720 72,3 725 727 729 731 735 735 735
738 738 739 739 742 743 746 749 751
XII
CONTENTS 13.4 Determination of humidity 13.5 Humidification and dehumidification 13.5,1 Methods of increasing humidity 1.3.5.2 Dehumidification 13.6 Water cooling 13.6.1 Cooling towers 13.6.2 Design of naturaldraught towers 13.6.3 Height of packing for both natural and mechanical draught towers 13.6.4 Change in air condition 13.6.5 Temperature and humidity gradients in a water cooling tower 13.6.6 Evaluation of heat and ...