Chinese Literature (Singapore: Asiapac, 2012); co-translated with Li En PDF

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Translated by Li En & Chan Ying Kit Preface Literature is a language-based art form, which includes operas, poems, novels and prose works – all of which are important expressions of culture. Chinese literature can be said to contain the essence of the wisdom and creativity of the Chinese. A cult...

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Translated by Li En & Chan Ying Kit

Preface Literature is a language-based art form, which includes operas, poems, novels and prose works – all of which are important expressions of culture. Chinese literature can be said to contain the essence of the wisdom and creativity of the Chinese. A cultural treasure, Chinese literature has been constant and vital; from ancient myths to pre-Qin prose, from Tang poems and Song lyrics to Yuan arias, and from Ming-Qing novels to contemporary literature, Chinese literature has been like a beautiful flower blooming radiantly. It is said that “talent emerges in every generation”; China’s great writers are numerous, and their works have indeed been passed down from generation to generation. The Chinese poet Qu Yuan sang: “The road is long and winding, and I shall seek it high and low.” What kind of world are we living in? The famous politician and Chinese literary figure Fan Zhongyan said, “First and foremost, be concerned with the affairs of the world; put aside the pleasures of the world.” One should be responsible for the world, and the happiness and sufferings of the people should always be kept in mind. As the modern literary figure Lu Xun put it: “I will spill my blood for the Yellow Emperor.” The sounds of ringing instruments create harmony between the sun and moon in the sky. Literature brings cohesion to human thought and culture, and gathers the thoughts which literary figures have had on life, society and time. Despite its long existence, it still maintains an everlasting charm. Literature purifies the soul, cultivates the personality and improves linguistic skills. “Learning 1,000 songs means later generations can hear them; viewing 1,000 swords allows one to identify weapons.” “Continue to practise the six arts and keep turning the pages of the Hundred Schools of Thought”, and you will be able to speak with wisdom and write with grace.

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In today’s world, many people lead hectic lives and usually have little time to appreciate literature. “Not knowing that the gentleman is already gone, the moon still shines on the windowsill.” Bright city lights have blotted out the moon. Little do we realise that, with a civilization that has lasted for 5,000 years, literature is like a gleaming pearl on a civilized river. Five thousand years of Chinese history has also helped establish the foundation of Chinese culture, the fertile soil for the cultivation of new writings to nourish the thoughts of the Chinese. Societal advances, changing times, intense competition and increased stress have all caused people to change their reading objectives from gaining huge volume of information to knowing just the salient points. In order to read effectively, they need highly-concise reading materials. This book can be considered a summary of Chinese literature, in which the reader can find information about the various works created during the past 5,000 years and come to understand the development of Chinese literature as well as the thoughts and styles of China’s great literary figures. Great effort has been made to select those classical examples that have contributed much to the development of Chinese literature over the last 5,000 years. Exquisite pictures have also been included so that the book may be visually pleasant and easy to understand.

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Contents Pre-Qin Literature 先秦文学 Classic of Mountains and Seas

《山海经》

2

Book of Songs

《诗经》

4

Confucius and The Analects

《论语》

6

Zhuangzi and the Zhuangzi

《庄子》

8

Han Feizi and the Han Feizi

《韩非子》

10

Qu Yuan and “The Sorrow of Parting”

《离骚》

12

Songs of Chu

《楚辞》

14

Chronicle of Zuo

《左传》

16

Discourses of the States

《国语》

18

Strategies of the Warring States

《战国策》

20

Literature of the Han Dynasty 两汉文学 Jia Yi

贾谊

24

Mei Cheng and “Seven Stimuli”

枚乘《七发》

26

Sima Xiangru

司马相如

28

Huainanzi Sima Qian and Records of the Grand Historian Yang Xiong

《淮南子》 司马迁《史记》

30 32

扬雄

34

Ban Gu and Book of the Former Han Dynasty Zhang Heng

班固《汉书》

36

张衡

38

Spring and Autumn of Wu and Yue

《吴越春秋》

40

Nineteen Old Poems

《古诗十九首》

42

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Literature of the Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝文学 “Three Caos” of Jian’an Literature

三曹

46

“Seven Scholars of Jian’an” Cai Wenji “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove”

建安七子 蔡文姬 竹林七贤

48 50 52

Chen Shou and Records of the Three Kingdoms Lu Ji Records of Searching for the Supernatural Tao Yuanming Yan Yanzhi Xie Lingyun Bao Zhao “Poem of Mulan” “The Peacock Flies Southeast” A New Account of Tales of the World The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons A Commentary on the Classic of Rivers A Selection of Essays New Songs from a Jade Terrace “Foreword to the Orchid Pavilion Collection”

陈寿《三国志》

54

陆机 《搜神记》 陶渊明 颜延之 谢灵运 鲍照 《木兰诗》 《孔雀东南飞》 《世说新语》 《文心雕龙》

56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74

《水经注》 《文选》 《玉台新咏》 《兰亭集序》

76 78 80 82

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Literature of the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties 隋唐五代文学 The Four Great Poets of the Early Tang Dynasty Chen Zi’ang Meng Haoran Wang Changling Gao and Cen’s Poems on the Frontiers Li Bai Wang Wei Du Fu Han Yu The Four Great Female Poets of the Tang Dynasty Bai Juyi Liu Yuxi Liu Zongyuan

初唐四杰

86

陈子昂 孟浩然 王昌龄 “高岑” 李白 王维 杜甫 韩愈 唐代四大女诗人

88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104

白居易 刘禹锡 柳宗元

106 108 110

Yuan Zhen

元稹

112

The Deep Emotions of Li Shangyin

李商隐

114

Wen Tingyun

温庭筠

116

Pi Rixiu

皮日休

118

Tang Mythological Tales

唐传奇

120

Literature of the Song Dynasty 宋代文学 Liu Yong The Yan Father and Son Ouyang Xiu

柳永 晏家父子 欧阳修

124 126 128

The “Three Sus” Sima Guang Zeng Gong Wang Anshi Collection of Music Bureau Ballads Li Qingzhao Lu You Xin Qiji

三苏 司马光 曾巩 王安石 《乐府诗集》 李清照 陆游 辛弃疾

130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144

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Literature of the Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties 辽金元文学 Xiao Guanyin Yuan Haowen Guan Hanqing Bai Pu Ma Zhiyuan Zheng Guangzu Wang Shifu and Romance of the Western Chamber Gao Ming and “Story of the Pipa”

萧观音 元好问 关汉卿 白朴 马致远 郑光祖 王实甫《西厢记》

148 150 152 154 156 158 160

高明《琵琶记》

162

Literature of the Ming Dynasty 明代文学 Water Margin Romance of the Three Kingdoms

《水浒传》 《三国演义》

166 168

Journey to the West Tang Xianzu’s Peony Pavilion Plum in the Golden Vase Feng Menglong and “Three Tales” Ling Mengchu and “Two Beats” The “Three Great Marvel Tales” of Ming Drama

《西游记》 汤显祖《牡丹亭》 《金瓶梅》 冯梦龙“三言” 凌濛初“二拍” 三大传奇

170 172 174 176 178 180

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Literature of the Qing Dynasty 清代文学 Pu Songling and Strange Tales of Liaozhai Palace of Everlasting Life The Historical Drama Peach Blossom Fan

《聊斋志异》 《长生殿》 《桃花扇》

184 186 188

Wu Jingzi’s The Scholars Dream of the Red Chamber Destinies of Flowers in the Mirror An Overview of Ancient Literature The Four Great Condemnatory Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty

《儒林外史》 《红楼梦》 《镜花缘》 《古文观止》 晚清四大谴责小说

190 192 194 196 198

Modern Literature 近现代文学 Lu Xun Guo Moruo Ye Shengtao

鲁迅 郭沫若 叶圣陶

202 204 206

Lin Yutang Mao Dun Xu Zhimo Zhang Henshui Zhu Ziqing Lao She Bin Xin Shen Congwen and The Border City Ding Ling Ba Jin Ai Qing Qian Zhongshu Xiao Hong Yang Mo and Song of Youth The Enigmatic Eileen Chang Jin Yong Gu Long Chiung Yao (Qiong Yao) The Eternal San Mao

林语堂 茅盾 徐志摩 张恨水 朱自清 老舍 冰心 沈从文 丁玲 巴金 艾青 钱钟书 萧红 杨沫 张爱玲 金庸 古龙 琼瑶 三毛

208 210 212 214 216 218 220 222 224 226 228 230 232 234 236 238 240 242 244

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Pre-Qin Literature

Classic of Mountains and Seas

T

he Classic of Mountains and Seas is the greatest

collection of Chinese mythical legends. It was written between the beginning of the Warring States period and the early Han period. The Classic is believed to have been written down according to legends passed on by the wizards and alchemists (who later evolved into Taoist priests) of the different periods. It can be considered as a classic text of folk and primitive religion in China.

Classic of Mountains and Seas

A Treasury of Chinese Fables

The Classic of Mountains and Seas 《山海经》can be divided into “The Classic of the Mountains” (five volumes), “The Classic of the Regions beyond the Seas” (five volumes), “The Classic of the Regions within the Seas” (five volumes) and the “Classic of the Great Wilderness” (four volumes). Rich and varied in content, the Classic contains many mythical legends and religious rituals, as well as records of ancient Chinese geography, literature, people, living things, minerals and medicine. Other ancient sources esteem it highly. The Chinese myth can be considered the “Mother of Literature”, and the relationship between the two can be likened to the relationship between the creator of the Universe (Pan Gu) and the sun, the moon and the seas. It is said that when Pan Gu died, his head was transformed into the four sacred mountains, his eyes became the sun and the moon, his blood became the rivers and seas, and his hair became the bushes and forests. People believed that even though Pan Gu is dead, there are traces of him everywhere — in the sun, moon, rivers, seas and living things. As legends evolve into other forms of literature, they often lose their mythical significance, but their imaginative nature and variety continue to have an impact on literature. The Chinese poet Tao Yuanming’s “Poem of Reading the Classic of Mountains and Seas” arises from the Classic of Mountains and Seas. The famous poet Li Bai, known for his romanticism, wrote the poems “Dream of a Visit to Mount Tianmu” and “Difficulties Faced at Shudao”, which also refer to the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Many of Li He’s poems and other lyrical works are derived from the Classic. Li Shangyin made great use of the Classic’s mythical and metaphorical characteristics. Su Dongpo, a famous poet of the Northern Song Dynasty, wrote the poem “A Temple Tablet of Duke Wen of Han from Chaozhou”; the sacrificial song depicted in the poem, which mentions “the singing and



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CHINESE LITERATURE

commanding sorcerer, riding the dragon, passes the White Cloud Village, where the descendants of heaven are knitting cotton garments” originates from the Classic as well. In addition, Gan Bao’s Story of the Search for the Gods and the Tang Dynasty supernatural tale Biography of Liu Yi also originate from the Classic. Works of other literary genres that emerged later, such as the Yuan drama “The Injustice to Dou’er”, the Ming novel Romance of the Investiture of the Gods, and the Qing novel Strange Tales of Liaozhai by Pu Songling all have links to the Classic. Characters in the popular novel Journey to the West (written by Wu Cheng’en of the Ming Dynasty), such as Sun Wukong, Pigsy and other half-human, half-beast creatures are believed to have been adapted from the Classic. Operas like “The Cowherd and the Weaving Maid”, “The Legend of the White Snake” and “Chang’er flies to the Moon” are also linked to the Classic. Many works of different literary genres, such as poems, lyrics, novels, and drama, have adapted tales from the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Modern Chinese writers, including Yang Mu, Yu Guangzhong, Guo Moruo, Tan Zihao and Wu Yingtao have also done the same. Mythical legends have been liberally used as metaphors in these works. In summary, the Classic of Mountains and Seas introduces many motifs that are widely used in Chinese literature. Mythical legends and Chinese literature are like two sides of the same coin: both belong to a literary genre that is symbolic, imaginative, narrative and energetic. Although the ancient legends portrayed in the Classic may pale in comparison to their Western counterparts, they are nevertheless a treasure of Chinese literature. In the Classic, one gets a glimpse of the activities of sorcerers, and one can also learn about the religion and beliefs of the ancient Chinese. There are many records of mythical animals, including birds, beasts, dragons, and snakes, which are portrayed as possessing mythical powers or are possibly related to ancestor (totem) worship. The Classic can be regarded as a treasury of ancient Chinese legends, and is of great significance. It also preserves many ancient historical sources that can be used by later generations to study Chinese history.

Portrait of Pan Gu

The Author of the Classic of Mountains and Seas Ancient scholars often believed that the Classic was written by Xia Yu (夏禹) or Bo Yi (伯 益), but this sounds absurd in modern times. Judging from the contents and the discrepancy of dates, it is quite certain that the Classic was not written by a single author, but is instead a collection of the works of different authors. Due to difficulties faced in transport and communications across different localities, information might have been passed down orally among sorcerers and was later collected and edited into a single work after the unification of China. The responsibilities of early Chinese sorcerers had likely influenced the fields within their cultural sphere, which includes astronomy, geography, history, religion, the study of living things, medicine, the genealogies of emperors and kings, and major ancient inventions in the Classic.



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Book of Songs A Canon of Poems

T

he Book of Songs (Shijing) started the

trend towards realism in China and initiated the long tradition of Chinese poetry. It has had a profound impact on Chinese literature and has even spread to different parts of the world. The Book of Songs is regarded as China’s first collection of poems and comprises 305 poems collected from the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, spanning more than 500 years of Chinese history.

The Book of Songs《诗经》is divided into three sections: folk songs, festive songs, and hymns. The section on folk songs comprises 160 poems, including “Fifteen Folk Songs of the States” . The festive songs are divided into the categories of major and minor festive songs, and consist of 105 poems. The hymns are divided into the categories of “Sacrificial Hymns of Zhou”, “Praise Hymns of Lu” and “Sacrificial Hymns of Shang”. This section is made up of 40 poems. The Book of Songs was widely disseminated in the Spring and Autumn Period. There are several views about the authorship of the Book of Songs. One view believes that the book was edited by the Chinese philosopher Confucius, but this is not accurate. The Book of Songs was in fact edited after a long period of compilation, and published in the middle of the sixth century BC before Confucius was born. In the classic Analects, Confucius mentioned the “300 poems” several times, which means that the version he saw was similar to the Book of Songs we have today. According to some records of the Qin and Han dynasties, the Book of Songs mainly originated from two sources. First, officials were employed at the Zhou court to collect folk songs. They went around interviewing people and collecting songs, and also gathered information about political gains and losses and the beliefs of the people. As various states assisted in the collection of these songs, the ensuing anthology was able to include a wide range of folk songs from different states. Second, the Zhou Dynasty also had a system of “presenting poems”, in which the officials and literati would present poems to the King on certain occasions. Many of the festive songs collected in the Book of Songs were collected in this manner. Initially, the Book of Songs consisted of lyrics with musical accompaniment and the combination of ancient poems, songs and dances was preserved. According

Book of Songs



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CHINESE LITERATURE

to the chapter “Gong Meng” of the Mozi, there are 300 chants, 300 songs, 300 chords and 300 dances. The Book of Etiquette and Rites, the Rites of Zhou, the Book of Rites and the Discourses of the States also note that the Book of Songs could be performed with musical instruments like the flute and other wind instruments. The musicians of Lu also performed some of the poems in the Book of Songs for Ji Pu. This indicates that ancient music and dance were closely linked in the Book of Songs. However, due to major social changes during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, many musical scores and information on the dances were lost. Only the lyrics survive today. The “15 Folk Songs of the States” mainly deal with themes like love and marriage. Work songs are also featured, such as the song “Plantain Seeds in Southern Zhou” which women would sing while gathering plantain seeds. Though simple in language and rhythm, these work songs portray the happiness of those singing while at work. A portion of the section on festive songs is dedicated to songs used by the royal family during ceremonial rituals. For instance, minor festive songs such as the “Puncture Vine”, “Sacrificial Ceremonies at South Mountain”, “Barren Field”, and “Big Field” are songs that people sang to pray for good harvest. Major festive songs, like “Cotton”, “The Masses”, “Gong Liu”, “The Emperor” and “The Gods”, were used to praise the ancestors for their efforts in establishing the Zhou kingdom and King Wu’s efforts to overthrow the Shang Dynasty. The impact of the Book of Songs has spread beyond China to other parts of the world. Chinese versions of the work has been available in Japan, Korea and Vietnam from an early period. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the work has also been available in French, German, English, and Russian, and it remains well-liked to this day.

Depiction inspired by Book of Songs

Musical Poems in the Book of Songs The “Hymns of Zhou” were dance poems used by the Zhou kings during sacrificial ceremonies at the beginning of the Western Zhou period. The “Hymns of Lu” were also musical poems used by the royal family in their ancestral temples. The “Hymns of Shang” were used by the royal family of the state of Song, during sacrificial ceremonies for their ancestors and for the Shang kings.



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Confucius and The Analects

C

onfucius was born during the Western

Zhou period, when the political system based on lineage was collapsing and a community based on commo...