COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PDF

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY About the Author E. Bruce Goldstein is a member of the cognitive psychology program in the Department of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and is Adjunct Professor of Psychology at the University of Arizona. He has received the Chancellor’s Distinguished Teaching Award...

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

About the Author E. Bruce Goldstein is a member of the cognitive psychology program in the Department of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and is Adjunct Professor of Psychology at the University of Arizona. He has received the Chancellor’s Distinguished Teaching Award for his classroom teaching and textbook writing. He received his PhD in experimental psychology from Brown University and was a post- doctoral fellow in the Biology Department at Harvard University before joining the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh. Bruce has published papers on retinal and cortical physiology, visual attention, and the perception of pictures. He is the author of Sensation & Perception (7th edition, Wadsworth, 2007) and the editor of the Blackwell Handbook of Perception (Blackwell, 2001) and the forthcoming two-volume Encyclopedia of Perception (Sage). He teaches undergraduate courses in cognitive psychology and sensation and perception and a graduate course in the teaching of psychology.

E. Bruce Goldstein University of Pittsburgh University of Arizona

S E C O N D

E D I T I O N

COGNITIVE P S YC H O LO G Y C o n n e c t i n g M i n d , R e s e a r c h , a n d E ve r yd ay E x p e r i e n c e

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Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, Second Edition E. Bruce Goldstein

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Brief Contents Chapter 1

Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

Chapter 2

Cognition and the Brain: Basic Principles

27

Chapter 3

Perception

55

Chapter 4

Attention

99

Chapter 5

Short-Term and Working Memory

135

Chapter 6

Long-Term Memory: Basic Principles

176

Chapter 7

Everyday Memory and Memory Errors

235

Chapter 8

Knowledge

283

Chapter 9

Visual Imagery

322

Chapter 10

Language

356

Chapter 11

Problem Solving

395

Chapter 12

Reasoning and Decision Making

434

1

Glossary

485

References

507

Name Index

539

Subject Index

544

vii

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Contents Chapter 1

Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1

The Challenge of Cognitive Psychology

3

The Complexity of Cognition 3 The First Cognitive Psychologists Method: Reaction Time 6

The Decline and Rebirth of Cognitive Psychology

5

10

The Rise of Behaviorism 11 The Decline of Behaviorism 12 The Cognitive Revolution 13

How Do Cognitive Psychologists Study the Mind?

16

Behavioral and Physiological Approaches to Cognition 16 The Behavioral Approach: Measuring Mental Rotation 17 Demonstration: Comparing Objects 17 The Physiological Approach: The Relationship Between Brain Activity and Memory Models in Cognitive Psychology 19

Something to Consider: Studying Cognition Across Many Disciplines Test Yourself 1.1 22 Chapter Summary 23 Think About It 24 If You Want to Know More 24 Key Terms 25 CogLab: Mental Rotation 25

Chapter 2

19

21

Cognition and the Brain: Basic Principles 27

Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System

30

Neurons Transform Environmental Energy Into Electrical Energy Method: Recording From Single Neurons 32

How Neurons Communicate

30

34

Communication Between Neurons Occurs at the Synapse Excitation and Inhibition Interact at the Synapse 35

How Neurons Process Information

34

36

Neurons Process Information by Interacting With Each Other 36 Neural Processing Creates Neurons That Respond to Specific Types of Stimuli

38

ix

Test Yourself 2.1 40 How Stimuli Are Represented by the Firing of Neurons

40

The Neural Code for Perceiving Faces 41 The Neural Code for Other Cognitive Capacities

Cognitive Processes and the Brain

42

42

Layout of the Brain 43 Different Areas of the Brain Serve Specific Functions 43 Method: Neuropsychology 43 Cognitive Processes Are Signaled by Activity in Many Areas of the Brain Method: Brain Imaging 45

Interacting With the Environment Affects Operation of the Nervous System Something to Consider: Are There Grandmother Cells After All? 50 Test Yourself 2.2 51 Chapter Summary 52 Think About It 52 If You Want to Know More 53 Key Terms 53 CogLab: Receptive Fields; Brain Asymmetry 54

Chapter 3

45

48

Perception 55

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing in Perception Demonstration: Perceiving a Picture

Recognizing Letters and Objects

57 59

61

Template Matching 61 Interactive Activation Model 62 Method: Word Superiority Effect 64 Feature Integration Theory (FIT) 66 Recognition-by-Components Theory 69

Test Yourself 3.1 72 Perceptual Organization: Putting Together an Organized World

72

The Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization 74 Demonstration: Finding Faces in a Landscape 78 The Gestalt Laws Provide “Best Guess” Predictions About What Is Out There

Why Computers Have Trouble Perceiving Objects

78

80

The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous 81 Objects Need to Be Distinguished From Their Surroundings and From Each Other Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred 82 The Reasons for Changes of Lightness and Darkness Can Be Unclear 83

How Experience and Knowledge Create “Perceptual Intelligence”

84

Heuristics for Perceiving 84 Demonstration: Shape From Shading 86 Knowledge Helps Us Perceive Words in Conversational Speech Demonstration: Organizing Strings of Sounds 87 Neurons Contain Information About the Environment 90

Something to Consider: Perception Depends on Attention

x

Contents

91

87

81

Demonstration: Change Detection

92

Test Yourself 3.2 94 Chapter Summary 94 Think About It 95 If You Want to Know More 96 Key Terms 97 CogLab: Change Detection; Apparent Motion; Blind Spot; Metacontrast Masking; Muller-Lyer Illusion; Signal Detection; Visual Search; Garner Interference 97

Chapter 4

Attention 99

Selective Attention: When Does Selection Occur?

101

Demonstration: Hearing Two Messages at Once 102 Method: Dichotic Listening 102 Early Selection: Broadbent’s Filter Model 103 Intermediate Selection: Treisman’s Attenuation Theory Late-Selection Models 109

How Does Task Load Affect Selective Attention? Method: Flanker-Compatibility Task

106

110 111

Test Yourself 4.1 113 Divided Attention: Paying Attention to More Than One Thing

114

Practice Can Lead to Automatic Processing 114 Demonstration: Stroop Effect 117 Automatic Processing Is Not Possible for Difficult Tasks 117 Divided Attention in the Real World: Inattention and Driving 118

Attention and Visual Processing

120

Directing Visual Attention With the Eyes 120 Method: Measuring Eye Movements 120 Directing Visual Attention Without Eye Movements Method: Precueing 123 Object-Based Visual Attention 125

122

Something to Consider: Attention in Social Situations—The Case of Autism 127 Test Yourself 4.2 130 Chapter Summary 130 Think About It 131 If You Want to Know More 132 Key Terms 133 CogLab: Stroop Effect; Spatial Cueing; Attentional Blink; Change Detection; Simon Effect; Von Restorff Effect

Chapter 5 What Is Memory?

134

Short-Term and Working Memory 135 136

The Purposes of Memory 136 The Modal Model of Memory 138

Sensory Memory

141

The Sparkler’s Trail and the Projector’s Shutter

141

Contents

xi

Sperling’s Experiment: Measuring the Visual Icon

Short-Term Memory

142

145

What Is the Duration of Short-Term Memory? 146 Demonstration: Remembering Three Letters 146 What Is the Capacity of Short-Term Memory? 148 Demonstration: Digit Span 148 How Is Information Coded in Short-Term Memory? 150

Test Yourself 5.1 153 Working Memory: The Modern Approach to Short-Term Memory

154

Demonstration: Reading Text and Remembering Numbers 154 The Phonological Loop 156 Demonstration: Phonological Similarity Effect 157 Demonstration: Word-Length Effect 157 Demonstration: Articulatory Suppression 158 The Visuospatial Sketch Pad 159 Demonstration: Holding a Verbal Stimulus in the Mind 160 Demonstration: Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind 160 The Central Executive 162 Update on the Working Memory Model: Addition of the Episodic Buffer

Working Memory and the Brain

163

164

The Delayed-Response Task in Monkeys Neurons That Hold Information 166 Brain Imaging in Humans 167

165

Something to Consider: Working Memory in American Sign Language 168 Test Yourself 5.2 170 Chapter Summary 171 Think About It 172 If You Want to Know More 173 Key Terms 174 CogLab: Partial Report; Brown-Peterson; Memory Span; Phonological Similarity Effect; Apparent Movement; Irrelevant Speech Effect; Modality Effect; Operation Span; Position Error; Sternberg Search 174

Chapter 6

Long-Term Memory: Basic Principles 176

Introduction to Long-Term Memory

179

Distinctions Between LTM and STM 181 Demonstration: Serial Position 182 Demonstration: Reading a Passage 186 Types of Long-Term Memory 186

Declarative Memory

187

Episodic and Semantic Memory 187 The Separation of Episodic and Semantic Memories 188 Connections Between Episodic and Semantic Memories 189

Implicit Memory

191

Repetition Priming

xii

Contents

192

Method: Repetition Priming 192 Method: Recognition and Recall 193 Procedural Memory 195 An Example of Implicit Memory in Everyday Experience

How Does Information Become Stored in Long-Term Memory?

Maintenance Rehearsal and Elaborative Rehearsal Levels-of-Processing Theory 197 Demonstration: Remembering Lists 198 Method: Varying Depth of Processing 199 Transfer-Appropriate Processing 200 Additional Factors That Aid Encoding 202 Demonstration: Reading a List 204

Test Yourself 6.1 207 How Are Memories Stored in the Brain?

196

196 197

207

Information Storage at the Synapse 208 Forming Memories in the Brain: The Fragility of New Memories 208 Forming Memories in the Brain: The Process of Consolidation 210 Memory for Emotional Stimuli 213

How Do We Retrieve Information From Long-Term Memory? Retrieval Cues 215 Method: Cued Recall 216 Encoding Specificity 218 State-Dependent Learning

220

What Memory Research Tells Us About Studying

221

Elaborate and Generate 221 Organize 222 Associate 223 Take Breaks 223 Match Learning and Testing Conditions

Something to Consider: Are Memories Ever “Permanent”? Method: Fear Conditioning

215

224

225

225

Test Yourself 6.2 228 Chapter Summary 229 Think About It 231 If You Want to Know More 231 Key Terms 233 CogLab: Serial Position; Implicit Learning; Levels of Processing; Encoding Specificity; Suffix Effect; Von Restorff Effect 233

Chapter 7

Everyday Memory and Memory Errors 235

Prospective Memory: What I’m Going to Do Later 237 Autobiographical Memory: What Has Happened in My Life

238

The Multidimensional Nature of Autobiographical Memory Memory Over the Life Span 240 Flashbulb Memories 242 Method: Repeated Recall 244

239

Contents

xiii

The Constructive Nature of Memory

249

Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” Experiment 250 Educated Guesses About High School Grades 251 Source Monitoring and Source Monitoring Errors 252

Test Yourself 7.1

253

Making Inferences 254 Demonstration: Reading Sentences 254 Schemas and Scripts 256 Remembering a List of Words 258 Demonstration: Memory for a List 258 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Construction

Memory Can Be Modified or Created by Suggestion

259

260

The Misinformation Effect 261 Method: Presenting Misleading Postevent Information 261 Creating False Memories for Early Events in People’s Lives

Why Do People Make Errors in Eyewitness Testimony?

264

266

Errors of Eyewitness Identification 267 The Crime Scene and Afterward 268 What Is Being Done? 272

Something to Consider: Memories of Childhood Abuse 275 Test Yourself 7.2 276 Chapter Summary 276 Think About It 279 If You Want to Know More 279 Key Terms 281 CogLab: Remember/Know; False Memory; Forgot It All Along Effect

Chapter 8

281

Knowledge 283

Categories Are Essential, but Definitions Don’t Work

284

Why Categories Are Useful 284 Why Defi nitions Don’t Work for Categories

286

Determining Categories by Similarity: Using Prototypes or Exemplars

288

The Prototype Approach: Finding the Average Case 288 Demonstration: Family Resemblance 290 Method: Sentence Verification Technique 291 The Exemplar Approach: Thinking About Examples 293 Which Approach Works Best: Prototypes or Exemplars? 294

Is There a Psychologically “Privileged” Level of Categories?

295

Rosch’s Approach: What’s Special About Basic-Level Categories? Demonstration: Listing Common Features 296 Demonstration: Naming Things 297 How Knowledge Can Affect Categorization 297

Test Yourself 8.1 298 Representing Relationships Between Categories: Semantic Networks

xiv

Contents

299

295

Introduction to Semantic Networks: Collins and Quillian’s Model Method: Lexical Decision Task 303 Criticism of the Collins and Quillian Model 304 Collins and Loftus Answer the Critics 305 Assessment of Semantic Network Theories 306

299

Representing Concepts in Networks: The Connectionist Approach 307 Categories in the Brain 314 Something to Consider: The Effect of Culture on “Basic” Levels for Categorization and for Inference Test Yourself 8.2 318 Chapter Summary 318 Think About It 320 If You Want to Know More 320 Key Terms 320 CogLab: Prototypes; Lexical Decision; Absolute Identification 321

Chapter 9

315

Visual Imagery 322

What Is Imagery, and What Is It For?

323

The Uses of Visual Imagery 323 The Plan of This Chapter 324

Imagery in the History of Psychology

325

Early Ideas About Imagery 325 Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution 325 Method: Paired-Associate Learning 326

Imagery and Perception: Do They Share the Same Mechanisms?

327

Kosslyn’s Mental-Scanning Experiments 327 Method/Demonstration: Mental Scanning 328 The Imagery Debate: Is Imagery Spatial or Propositional? Comparing Imagery and Perception 332 Is There a Way to Resolve the Imagery Debate? 336

328

Test Yourself 9.1 336 Imagery and the Brain 337 Imagery Neurons in the Brain 337 Brain Imaging 338 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 340 Method: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Neuropsychological Case Studies 341 Conclusions From the Imagery Debate 346

Using Imagery to Improve Memory

340

347

Visualizing Interacting Images 347 Placing Images at Locations 348 Demonstration: Method of Loci 348 Associating Images With Words 349

Something to Consider: Mental Representation of Mechanical Systems Demonstration: Mechanical Problems

350

350

Contents

xv

Test Yourself 9.2 352 Chapter Summary 352 Think About It 353 If You Want to Know More 354 Key Terms 355 CogLab: Mental Rotation; Link Word

Chapter 10 What Is Language?

355

Language 356 357

The Creativity of Human Language 357 The Universality of Language 358 Studying Language in Cognitive Psychology

Perceiving and Understanding Words

358

360

Components of Words 361 Perceiving Words 361 Understanding Words 363 Demonstration: Lexical Decision Task 364 Method: Lexical Priming 365 Summary: Words Alone and in Sent...