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RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS IN AUSTRALIA POST – 1945 1. Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities 1.1 Discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming – Kinship – Ceremonial life – Obligations to the land and people

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Discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming kinship Kinship is a network of relationships  law, ways of living Governs interactions and responsibilities - dictates their interactions, who to marry, dietary laws Moieties – splitting of a group into 2 (marriage), people sharing a moiety are siblings, cannot marry within a moiety. Articulates spouse’s responsibilities - Assigns responsibility in order to transmit knowledge from older to younger generations o Yolngu people of North Eastern Arnhem, Black cockatoo Dhuwa and white cockatoo is kirritja, compliment and balance each other in marriage, ceremonies and daily life Each person has 4 totems  represents nation, clan and family group (preordained) Totems unifies the clan under their spirit ancestor - creates a Dreaming kinship with other clans with same totem - creates a bond between a human and their totem and a Dreaming kinship with others bearing the same totem o must protect totems and pass them onto the next generation - son adopts his dead father’s totem and kinship group. Members of kinship groups are expected to meet obligations - obeying tribal laws and must work with nature to ensure that nature’s resources are not exploited Elder Bob Randall- “The completeness of the oneness” Passed down through stories to children Discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming ceremonial life All ceremonies re-affirm the Dreaming and is a forum of communication Communication through art, dance, songs expressed in ceremonies - connect to their ancestral spirits and access past events through ceremonial activity o Spiritually communicated through art, singing, acting, story and dancecorroboree: Dreaming stories through singing, dancing and music o Indigenous art  expresses landscape and sacred knowledge – water holes, sacred sites Ceremonies allows them to spiritually transform and ‘ascend’ towards the spiritual realm, in communion with ancestors Aboriginals able to access knowledge from their kinship groups. Oral tradition is passed down to generations – expresses explanations of life from dreaming Death and burial ceremonies - when one dies, a person’s spirit reintegrates into the world of the Dreaming and merges with their totemic being Songs are sung to fasten their journey, person is painted in white, the coffin is painted with messages asking the spirits to guide the deceased back to the clan Initiation is aboriginal rite of passage denoting the transition from childhood to adulthood laws governing these, are fixed, maintained and passed on from gen to gen Boys: circumcision or other painful experience e.g. tooth removal, scarification Girls: taken to isolated place after first menstrual cycle and is taught responsibilities by elder womenthen taken to river to be washed and painted on= maturity Initiation defines gender roles, increase status, responsibilities and obligations to kinship, land, ceremonies and rituals takes place on sacred sites, thus showing inextricable link

Discuss how Aboriginal Spirituality is determined by the Dreaming obligations of the land and people land, the people and the Dreaming is inextricably linked - all part of one mutually dependent relationships 1

link made through totemism. Totem is object, animal, landmark where a person is connected to the spiritual forces responsible for his/her creation each totem has sacred site Land is a physical medium in which dreaming is lived and communicated Land acts as a dwelling and resting place for ancestral beings – land must be cared for and sustained because it is spiritual but also ensures the continuation of Aboriginal life People are stewards to the land  ritual association and economic uses (food) If cared for, the land will provide and nurture human beings for present and future Dreaming is inextricably linked to the land – explains how land and its feature formed To make this spirituality living, they engage in ceremonies and rituals If the ceremonies are not observed, then the power of the land to renew itself will fail and natural disasters will occur. o

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Discuss how Aboriginal Spirituality is determined by the Dreaming. (Kinship, Ceremonial life and Obligations to land and people) - The Dreaming is inextricably linked to Aboriginal spirituality - One’s identity and sense of belonging is embedded within their dreaming kinships - Everyone has a totem representing their connection to an ancestral being in the land. - Kinship provides guidelines of everyday life including diets and marriage - Ceremonial life maintains the dreaming – stories can be passed from generations through ceremonies, which gives them purpose and meaning - A vacuum in which knowledge is transmitted, and connects past and present through activity such as music, dance, song, ceremony and performance. - Dreaming connects Aboriginals with the land - The land is “impregnated with the power of the ancestral spirits” - Aboriginals need to look after the land as “we don’t own the land, the land owns us”.. - Dreaming + identity + land = inextricably linked

1.2 Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to: – Separation from the land – Separation from kinship groups – The Stolen Generations

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Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to separation from the land - Separation from land amounts to a loss of identity and a sense of belonging - Dispossession began with the initial dispossession of European settlement - Cannot access to sacred sites and practice their ceremonies and rituals, which makes them unable to connect to their spiritual ancestors that reside on the land. Knowledge is unable to be passed down, meaning future generations will not their true identity, which may contribute to the extinction of this spiritual belief - People unable to effectively draw on spiritual power of dreaming and ancestral spirits

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Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to the separation from kinship groups inevitable breakdown of the kinship system as tribes and individuals cannot access their ancestral territory Loss of identity as they forget their kinship obligations and also lost their extended spiritual family - Without these bonds, Aboriginals will lose both their individual and collective sense of self - Kinship breakdown adversely affected Aboriginal spirituality through the decline of indigenous languages – more than 500 languages die out because children aren’t taught their mother tongue  loss of identity and culture  health and education is undermined 2

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Elders passed away, unable to transmit knowledge to stolen generations regarding the creation stories and kinship obligations, origins - fundamental to culture and heritage, which makes the, lose their purpose and identity Hundreds of years of connection to land and dreaming is destroyed, dreaming can only be accessed in country, making their land important Cannot unite with their Dreaming family, continue with the system of obligations and expectations or being always able to pass on tribal lore. Today though, we are witnessing a resurgence of Aboriginal culture with groups helping to preserve and share Aboriginal lore. The teaching of indigenous language may help foster the sense of cultural and spiritual identity so dramatically damaged by the breakdown of the kinship system.

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Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to the Stolen Generations The government’s policy of forcibly removing children from their parents, now referred to as the stolen generation, was said to be for the children’s own welfare o Children were taught to think and act like ‘white’ with the aim of eventually ‘breeding them out’ altogether Children had their names changed and backgrounds erased - Loss of language, land, culture – loss of kin, leading to the breakdown of kinship groups and loss of purpose - Children aren’t able to access the knowledge they require to access the dreaming and continue to practice their spirituality as they cannot access the land, which contains ancestral beings - The long-term effect - ongoing reality of spiritual disconnectedness with rates for infant mortality, diseases such as alcoholism and diabetes, unemployment (20%) and percentage of prison populations (20%) all higher than the national average It has been found that the policies have resulted in a continuing sense of grief and trauma, as well as a loss of identity and purpose among aboriginal people.

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Discuss the continuing effects of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities (Separation from kinship groups, separation from land and the stolen generations) - Dispossession is viewed as the destruction of “spiritual ties” between aboriginals and the land due to European colonisation - An effect included separation from the land –It also removed the sense of identity and purpose of each individual aborigine. - Separation from kinship groups – this removed the sense of belonging to Aboriginals – kinship dictated their dietary laws, how to interact with one another, marriage. - REMOVAL FROM KINSHIP = LOSS OF IDENTITY, PURPOSE AND SENSE OF BELONGING - Stolen generations – separation from family removes sense of belonging to oneself, loss of self identity in life. Aboriginal culture was weakened and lost forever for future generations. Language was also lost when its use was forbidden by institutions. Some families left aboriginal community to avoid having their children taken away

1.3 Outline the importance of the following for the Land Rights movement: – Native Title – Mabo – Wik Land rights movement:  A legal and political movement that seeks to secure the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their land, and to ensure their spirituality and cultural integrity is persevered  During assimilation- Aboriginals fought back by not cooperating and passive resistancethrough basic initiatives of the community and strikes  Challenged the legal and legislative basis of “Terra Nullius” – no one has land 3

 Native title: communal and individual rights of Indigenous in regards to water/land Yirrkala Bark petition + impact  Yolngu leaders objected to the lack of consultation and secrecy of the government’s agreement with Nabalco, and their concern about the impact of mining on the land  first traditional documents recognised by the Commonwealth Parliament  petitions unsuccessful but they raised awareness in Australian law/ policies, about the inextricable connection, both spiritually and culturally, to Aboriginal spirituality and the land Gurindji Strike- The Wave Hill Walk Off- 1966 + impact  Aboriginal tribe owners led 200 Aboriginal workers off their jobs at the Wave Hill Cattle Station. The strike lasted 7 years  Complaints included low wages+ poor conditions; focus moved from work rights to land  Media held open discussion on land rights and significance to Aboriginal Dreaming  Allowed voices for those against land rights to be expressed - compelled political parties to take action Mabo 1992 Australian High Court judgement + impact  The overturning of Terra Nulius, with the mabo decision  Eddie Mabo on behalf of Murray Island sought to secure their traditional land  Court decided that the land title of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders were recognised under Common Law  Court recognised “native title” and the Indigenous’ spiritual connection with land  Stated that Aboriginal people have right of ownership of their land and recognised their political and legal rights Quotes:  “It is my fathers land, my grandfathers land, my grandmothers land. I am related to it, it gives me identity. If I don’t fight for it, then I will be moved out of it and (it) will be the loss of my identity” Fr. Dave Passi, plaintiff in Mabo case  “The common law of this country would perpetuate injustice if it were to continue to embrace… terra nullius” Justice Brennan, High Court Mabo decision, 1992 Native title act- 1993 + impact  Came out of the Mabo decision – recognised that indigenous Australians had continuing connection with the land  States the guidelines by which indigenous people could pursue Native Title  To make a claim a community must show they have maintained a traditional connection with the land and that their title has not been legally extinguished  A federal law recognised the rights of Aboriginal people Ensured funds for indigenous people to purchase land  National Native title tribunal - Only effected 3-4% of indigenous people who still had direct and ongoing connections with their country The Wik Decision- 1996:  decision based on land subjected to pastoral leases (40% of Australian land) – crown land leased to Indigenous for agricultural purposes  High court of Australia decided that native title could co-exist with other rights on land under pastoral lease  But when pastoralists and Aboriginal rights were in conflict the pastoralists rights would overrule Outline the importance of the land right movement (Wik, Native Title and Mabo) - Land rights are vital - dreaming, identity, land = inextricably linked - Overturning of “Terra Nulius” in 1992 by the Mabo decision acknoweledged Aboriginal Spirituality and their on-going connection to “country” - Land contains sacred sites, knowledge about stories of creation existed

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Aboriginals can practice their ceremonies on land  transmits knowledge about obligations to land and people, shapes identity Each person is connected to the land through their totem, which dictates their interactions with others, diets, enabling them to enact their kinship roles and fulfil totemic obligations Land rights movements help them to regain the land they have been connecting for hundreds of years  continue their oral tradition, ensures spirituality remains meta temporal and animistic. Prevents Aboriginals from losing identity, heritage and culture, land rights needed for them to access Dreaming,

2. Religious expression in Australia – 1945 to the present 2.1 Outline changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to the present using census data  Since 1945, Australia’s religious landscape has seen great change, due to immigration, denominational switching, new age religions and secularism  Christianity was the most common religion reported in 2016 (52%). Islam (2.6%) and Buddhism (2.4%) were the next most common religions reported. Nearly a third of Australians reported in the Census that they had no religion in 2016 (30%)  In the 10 years from 2006 to 2016, the proportion of people reporting a religion other than Christianity in the Census increased from 5.6% in 2006 to 8.2% in 2016. Although the increase was spread across most of the non-Christian religions, the top two were Hinduism (0.7% in 2006 to 1.9% in 2016) and Islam (1.7% to 2.6%). Those reporting no religion increased noticeably from 19% in 2006 to 30% in 2016. The largest change was between 2011 (22%) and 2016, when an additional 2.2 million people reported having no religion. Changes in Christian denominations from 1947-2016: - The religious makeup of Australia has shifted slowly over the past 50 years. In 1966, Christianity was the main religion (88%). After Australia abolished the White Australia Policy in 1973, migration grew from non-European countries where religions other than Christianity were common. Middle Eastern Immigrants escaping war entered Australia. Whit Australia policy abolition also allows refugees from war torn Vietnam and South East Asian countries The proportion of people reporting to be affiliated with a religion other than Christianity had increased to 2.6% in 1991 but increased more rapidly in the last 25 years to 8.2% in 2016. - In 2016, nearly half (47%) of those born overseas reported an affiliation with a Christian religion, compared with 58% of the Australian-born population.    

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Christianity is the largest religion in Australia- major religious tradition however total percentage of population has decreased due to increased immigration of other religions Catholicism in 1947 was 20.9%, in 2006 was 25.8%- due to immigration from countries such as Croatians, Germans, Italians, Spaniards and Maltese  Catholics are largest religious group in Australia Decrease in Presbyterian and Congregationalists due to merging with Methodists to form Uniting Church in 1977 Anglican- 39% -17.1% (2011) o Consistently decreased from 1947 to 2011 o Average drop of 2% every 5 years o Still the second largest Christian denomination in Australia o Decreased rom 17.1% in 2011 to 13.3% in 2016 Catholics o Increased from 1971 to 2011 by 1.0% o Largest Christian denomination in Australia o 1986 – Catholicism overtook Anglicanism by 3.8% o 1980: More Catholic migration from war torn Balkans and Philippines o Decline in church attendance impacted Anglican Churchs 5

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Methodist- 11.5%-3.4% (1981) o 1981 was the last census data recorded for Methodist as they joined with Presbyterian and reformed church to form the uniting church  Orthodox o Increased to 3% in 1981 o Continuously decreased slightly  Pentecostal- 0.3% (1976) o Grown from 0.2% of the population in 1966 to 1.1% in 2016  Presbyterian and reformed- 9.8%-2.8% o Continually decreased- bigger decreases occurred when uniting church was formed (6.6 in 1976 to 4.4 in 1981)  Salvation army- 0.6%-0.3% o Continuous decrease  Uniting- 4.9% (1981)- 5.0% o Formed in 1977, did not exist for the previous census o Increased in 1986 (7.6) and 1991 (8.2) but then continuously decreased o 3rd largest Christian denomination  General statements: o Anglican, churches of Christ, Methodist, Presbyterian and reformed, and salvation army decreased from 1947-2011 o Catholics, Orthodox, Pentecostal, Uniting and other Christian denominations increased from 1947-2011 o Baptist and Lutherans generally stayed the same Changes in non-Christian denominations from 1947-2011:  Buddhism- 0.2% (1986)- 2.5% o No census data presented for dates earlier than 1986 o Increased o Largest non-Christian denomination in Australia  Hinduism- 0.1% (1991)- 1.3 o No census data presented for dates earlier than 1991 o Increased o 3rd largest non-Christian denomination o Fastest growth since 2006 due to immigration from South Asia o 2011 – Hinduu population was 1.3, increased by 0.6% to 1.9% in 2016  No religion- 0.3%-2.1% o Significantly increased o More Australians than ever are identifying as no religion 2.2 Account for the present religious landscape in Australia in relation to: – Christianity as the major religious tradition, Immigration, Denominational switching, Rise of New, Age religions, Secularism  Account for the present religious landscape in Australia in relation to Christianity as the major religious tradition - stems largely from historical and migration factors - most First Fleet convicts and settlers were Church of England (now known as Anglican). - small number of Catholic and Jews. Christians in Australia increased with further migration from Britain and the commencement of the Assisted Passage Scheme. Predominantly Christian people also arrived as the result of migration agreements with other countries such as Italy and Greece. The institutionalisation of Christianity has reinforced and perpetuated its position as the predominant religion in Australia. The early settlers brought with them many reflections of their Christian heritage such as systems of common law and government. Public holidays celebrate important events in the Christian calendar. Census data for the past 50-60 years, particularly since the 1970s, indicates some significant trends with a proportional 6

decline (24.1%) in ...