Core Study - World War I - yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet yeet PDF

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1.1 Reasons for the Stalemate -

The war, which many thought would end by Christmas 1914, was initially an offense-based war of movement. However several factors and developments had forced both sides into a stalemate and hence, a defensive war of attrition.

The Schileffen Plan: This war plan, devised by German chief of staff Graf Alfred von Schileffen, was put in place to prevent Germany from fighting a war on two fronts against Russia and France, two enemies who geographically surrounded Germany. The plan utilised quick movement, the Germans looking to capture (encircle) Paris through Belgium within six weeks and move again to fight Russia, who would mobilise slowly due to poor transport systems. It also planned to repel a potential attack by France and their Plan Seventeen. A left wing would be assembled to fight off attackers at Alsace and Lorraine. Even so, the Schileffen Plan did not succeed and its failure contributed to the establishment of the stalemate. It had failed because: -

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Austria-Hungary was more interested in pursuits in the Balkans and did not provide the promised support against Russia. Consequently, troops had to be moved from the nowweakened invasion at France to the Eastern Front to fight Russia. Belgian forces put up fierce resistance against the German Army, slowing their advance. The invasion of Belgium had also outraged Britain and brought them into the war as they had promised to keep Belgium neutral. German Armies experienced major supply problems as supplies bases were far from the front line. The wheeling manoeuvre that would be used to encircle Paris was too difficult and as a result, Paris was not captured. Delays in the German advance gave time for France to regroup and form new armies to fight off Germany. With the assistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), France was able to stop the German advance at the Marne. Winter conditions forced German armies to dig in at Aisne as the allied forces did the same. The formation of trenches followed and lines were expanded by the race for the English Channel (the race for the sea). The war had transitioned from a war of movement to a stalemate.

Other Factors: Other than the failure of the Schileffen Plan, contributors to the stalemate included: -

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Machine Guns were defensive weapons that allowed one many to hold off battalions of men with 10 minutes of constant fire. The machine gun favoured the stalemate by making frontal assaults very risk y. Artillery was made more effective by technological advances. High Explosive (HE) field guns allowed a rain of shrapnel to be put upon the opposition. The expansion of heavily defended trenches due to factors like the Race to the Sea made flanking strategies futile. While they made little to no progress at the expense of large casualties, frontal assaults were seen as the only possible tactic by Generals. Consequently, the stalemate resulted in a large amount of casualties on both sides as neither was able to make any significant gains. The trench warfare not expected by war generals required a rethink of tactics whilst soldiers grew accustomed to the conditions.

1.2 Nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with the experiences of Allied and German Soldiers 1.2.1

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The trench system Trenches ran from the English channel to the Swiss border, approximately 780km in length The allies usually had lines three trenches deep whilst the Germans, who had prepared themselves for a defensive war, had lines up to ten trenches deep. As they concentrated on “defence in depth”, Germans trenches were also better fortified than Allied trenches and were situated in the best defensive positions. Landscape of the trenches

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The trenches were complex systems that weren’t made up of only one set of trenches but rather, a collection of trenches that served different purposes. No Man’s Land: The land between the trenches of the opposing sides. Artillery bombardment and harsh conditions had turned it into a nightmarish environment were advancing infantry were exposed to enemy fire. Firing/Frontline Trench: The trench fronting No Man’s Land where attacks were launched and repelled. These trenches had crenulations every 10-20m to reduce casualties from direct enemy fire and artillery while giving them a jagged or zig-zag pattern. Command Trench: The trench behind the frontline that gave access to shelter in the form of dug-outs as well as latrines. Support Trench: Trenches up to 200m behind the frontline that held reverse soldiers used for defence and support along with medical stations and supply depots. Reserve Trenches: Up to 600m behind the frontline, these trenches contained dug-outs for reserve soldiers. Strong point: Slit trenches reserved for specialist weapons e.g. snipers and machine guns as well as mortars. Communication Trench: Trenches that provided links between other trenches that allowed soldiers and supplies to move front and back. They had eventually linked up to the roads. Saps and Listening Posts: Shell carters connected by trenches that allow soldiers to detect an incoming attack. Salient: Claimed land that jutted from the front line into enemy trenches. It had left soldiers vulnerable to fire from all possible directions. Parts of the trenches

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Sandbags: Provided reinforcement of trenches. Parapet: The front of the trenches that was reinforced with sandbags and other materials to heights of about 50cm. Parados: The back of the trench that was also reinforced to protect soldiers from enemy fire and artillery explosions from behind the trenches. Firing Step: Built along the front row of trenches to allow soldiers to shoot through loopholes and between sandbags. Loopholes: Spaces in between trenches that could be shot through. Revetment: The walls of the trench that were reinforced with material like iron and wooden planks. Duckboards: Planks that elevated the trench floor to keep soldiers out of the mud. Dugouts: Shelters that were dug into the ground and sometimes fortified with concrete, providing effective protection against artillery fire. If conditions were suitable, soldiers could also dig shelters known as funk-holes along the walls of the trench.

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Barbed Wire: Provided defences for trenches and entangled the enemy, hence slowing them. While many soldiers knew how to move through their own barbed wire, the enemy wire proved to be a formidable barrier. Experiences of Allied and German soldiers Ranks and Positions

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Soldier: Private soldiers (“men”) had made up the bulk of the army. They traditionally were peasants and working class youth with little education however this had changed as the war progressed and men of all backgrounds were conscripted into the army. NCO: Non-commissioned officers were sergeants and corporals who had been promoted from the private positions. While they were rare at first, the casualty rate of Junior Officers made their presence more common. Junior Officers: Officers traditionally came from upper class background and were taught how to lead the war and were expected to do so. These young men were also entitled to more rations and frequent leaves, but had suffered from the highest casualty rate as they led men out of the frontline. Senior Officers: Experienced war veterans who had made decisions away from the frontline. Hence, they had no knowledge of what really transpired on the battlefront and were barely influenced by the horrific casualty rates that came with their tactics, which were unsuitable for th a 20 century technological war. They had safe jobs away from the conflict and were despised by men because of their disregard towards the waste of life brought upon by their strategies. Activities Outside the Front

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Training: Soldiers were trained in France (or other given destinations) and thought discipline, bayonet practices and other routines that had little relevance to the nature of the war on the front line. Work: Hard and tedious work that included latrine duty and delivery of supplies to the front. Transporting food was a major problem at the front and had affected the freshness and nutritional value of food. For instance, a loaf of bread would had taken eight days to reach the front, this a major problem considering food for a battalion of about 1000 men had to be provided on a daily basis. Reserve and Support trench duty: Soldiers at the reserve trenches performed the same duties as those at the frontline and hence, had faced the same dangers. Frontline Duty

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Stand to: An hour before dawn, soldiers stood at the firing step, weapons loaded and ready to fend off an attack from the enemy. It was suspected that the enemy would attack in the morning where they opposed will be tired and at their most vulnerable state. Stand down: After sunrise, soldiers were given their breakfast of black rum, bacon, tea and bread, cooked over stoves (if available) or served cold otherwise. The day’s activities had included cleaning weapons, trench repairs and letter writing. Monotony caused many soldiers to complain about boredom however there was also the mental strain of staying alert for an enemy attack. Stand to: An hour before sundown, soldiers stood alert on the firing step once more. Stand down: After sundown, there was another issue of rum. The night’s activities included repairing trenches, patrolling no man’s land and bringing up supplies.

An Attack -

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Briefing: Before an attack, officers and commanders usually had a meeting with soldiers, who were reminded of their months of training, expectations of the higher command, atrocities committed by the enemy as well as field punishment. Officers had also briefed about battle plans and objectives. Moving up: Soldiers would then move up from the reserve area, through the communication trenches to the frontline and reserve trenches. On their way, soldiers would see the casualties and graves that would be prepared for the inevitable dead. Going over the top: Once at the reserve or frontline trenches, soldiers would wait for the final order to over the top of trenches into battle. Soldiers would then be exposed to enemy and the other dangers of the war. However, failure to follow orders and go over the top usually meant execution. Rest

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Troops who had come out of the front line were given rest where they could get showers, better food, entertainment, news and parcels although, rest usually meant manual labour as supplies had to be unloaded and moved Wounded soldiers were given a short leave (Australian soldiers were sent to England) to go home. Soldiers had also given themselves a ‘Blighty” (i.e. a serious injury) in order to get out of the war. Aggression outside Offensives

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Even when there was no action, maintained aggression meant that soldiers were constantly in danger. Grenades and other bombs could be thrown into trenches and proved to be an effective ranged weapon that could be used to harass and maim enemies outside major offensives (they were used in major battles as well) In 1916, night raids and patrols that were previously discouraged were utilised by the allies to “harass Germans in every possible way.” Patrols were sent to gather information while raids were night time assaults conducted by specially trained teams to harass the enemy. Sniping was another form of harassment that kept soldiers alert. In 1914, most battalions had only four specialist snipers but the establishment of sniper schools in 1915 allowed battalions to have 25 snipers. Snipers were long ranged specialist weapons with telescopic sight and a 2000m range; they had eliminated the privilege of relaxing on the frontline. Active sectors usually had 20-25 casualties a day. One British sector was reported to have used 30,000 grenades over three days, resulting in 3,000 casualties over 14 days due to German retaliation. Even so, there were anomalies as quiet sectors had men “live and let live” with as little as 5 or 6 casualties per day.

Casualties -

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On a daily basis, 7000 men on each side were either wounded or killed. Many men had died of wounds which could become septic (infected) within six hours. Gangrene was fatal in 44% of cases and people with the infection often had limbs amputated with a saw. Unsanitary conditions in the trenches had encouraged pests to become rampant, the excess of excreta encouraging a plague of flies. Corpse rats as big as cats were abundant and had fed on the unburied dead while the infestations of lice and constant scratching of wounds caused many men to contract Trench Fever. Many soldiers had also caught diseases like pneumonia, dysentery and influenza due to the cramped living conditions of the trenches.

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Excesses of weather, particularly rain, caused no man’s land to become a muddy landscape filled with waterlogged craters deep enough to drown in. The dampness of trenches and the ineffectiveness of duckboards caused many to suffered from foot rot/trench foot. Mental illness was another problem that came with the horrors and unpredictability of the war. Shell Shock, an illness caused by prolonged artillery bombardments, was no acknowledged at first and was instead seen as a sign of cowardice (people with symptoms of the illness were sometimes killed).

1.3 Attempts to break the Stalemate As the defensive war continued, the Germans would assume defensive positions to wane out the conflict and wear down the enemy. Hence, the onus (responsibility) was on the Allied forces to break the stalemate and restart the war of Movement as German occupied land they were looking to reclaim. To do so, they had utilised several strategies which included: 1.3.1 Tactics Major Offensives: The main tactic used to try and break the stalemate, major offensives were large scale frontal assaults that were divided into three separate phases which were: -

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Artillery Bombardment: Artillery and shell attacks were launched to destroy barbed wire and other enemy defences. These usually failed as artillery proved ineffective against barbed wire and concrete reinforced trenches/dug-outs allowed enemies to survive artillery attacks and set up defensive positions. Infantry Advance: After the bombardment, soldiers will go “over the top” (of trenches) upon their officers signal. Frontal attacks left troops exposed to machine gun fire and artillery bombardment but were the only possible tactic since the expansion of trenches made flanking impossible. Barbed wire was also hard to move through and left soldiers susceptible to enemy fire if they got stuck. Calvary Charge : If the infantry charge was successful, the Calvary (horsemen) would be sent of roll up and clean enemy lines. However the Calvary was rarely utilised and even when they were, the landscape of no man’s land made riding unsuitable and horsemen easy targets for the enemy.

Technological Advances: Developments in weaponry were another attempt to break the stalemate. -

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Poison gas was one such development that was an attempt to break the stalemate. A weapon of terror, gas was capable of making soldiers blind and turning craters into death traps as the gas would sink into them. However it did not break the stalemate after the development of gas masks reduced its effectiveness as an assault weapon. Improvements to artillery, while they added to the horror of the war, did not break the stalemate as neither side gained a significant advantage. Tanks were also first developed and used at the Somme in 1916. Even though they had the potential to break down defences and take out enemies with their equipped cannons and machine guns, these early forms of tanks were ineffective as they either got bogged or broke down. Even so, the tank (in its later forms) was a major contributor to the breaking of the stalemate and was particularly dangerous when used in conjunction with aircraft.

Attrition: Attrition, i.e. the wearing down of the enemy on both the battle and home front, was seen as necessary to win a war that had succumbed to a stalemate. -

On the home front, attrition meant maintaining resources and contribution to the war effort whilst blockading the enemy and starving them of resources. On the battle front it was simpler and had come down to killing as many men as possible.

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The use of attrition was best demonstrated at the war’s key battles (e.g. Verdun, Somme and Passchendaele) but was criticised because of the horrific amount of casualties that came with the strategy. Generals, particularly Haig of Britain, were condemned because of their callous disregard towards the lives of the men they sacrifice and send over the top. Conversely, the use of attrition had helped the Allied forces win the war, Haig justifying his continual use of offensives on the grounds of wearing the Germans down into submission.

Other Tactics: -

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1.3.2

Creeping Barrage: Involved the advancement of infantry in conjunction with artillery bombardment. While it left soldiers susceptible to friendly fire, this strategy did not give time for the enemy to regroup and had proved effective when timing was done right. Stormtroopers: Germany used stormtroopers who would advance in small assaults groups through a smokescreen to confuse enemies, who would then be attacked with flamethrowers and LMGs. This tactic helped the Germans make large gains but had come at the cost of their best soldiers who were used in these groups. Tanks and Aircraft with Creeping Barrage: in 1918, the allies had used the creeping barrage in conjunction with vehicles like tanks and planes. While the artillery would keep the enemy at bay, airplanes would strafe and machine gun enemies from above. Tanks would then provide cover for advancing infantry and hold their supplies, making soldiers more agile and therefore better suited for the war. The combination of infantry and vehicles was extremely effective and had made a war of movement possible once again. Opening New Fronts: The opening of new fronts (particularly in the east) was another strategy used by the Allies to pressure Germany into dispersing its troops, weakening its forces and therefore allowing the Allied forces to break the stalemate. However, the opening of new fronts had failed and developed into stalemates. The 1915 Gallipoli Campaign, which had intended to drive Turkey out of the war and open supply routes for Russia, was a famous attempt to open new fronts that had also ended in disaster (due to missteps in the plan, landing etc.) Naval Warfare: While both Britain and German built up large navies prior to the war, they were seldom used and major battles were avoided due to the risk that the collapse of the navy will leave each country defenceless. However, they was one major battle, the Battle of Jutland of 1916, that saw both Britain and German fleets returning to their home fronts and declaring themselves the winner of the war. Naval Blockade and Submarines: As they saw little use in battle, the British had decided to use their ships for a different purpose as a naval blockade that blocked German from major supply ports. The blockade had played a massive role in the collapse of Germany’s home front and war campaign and had caused the Germans to utilise submarines to attack merchant ships on Allied waters and blockade Britain. Soon after, Germany had resorted to unrestricted submarine warfare, this in the long term proving detrimental as it would anger Americans and bring the USA into the war.

Key Battles

The Ba...