Criminology notes - tracey PDF

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CORR 118 Introductory criminologyChapter 1Formative Questions: What is criminology? Why do people commit crime? What behaviour should be considered criminal? How is research used to develop theory? What are the social responsibility and social problem perspectives? What is Criminology? Interdiscipli...

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CORR 118 Introductory criminology Chapter 1 Formative Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is criminology? Why do people commit crime? What behaviour should be considered criminal? How is research used to develop theory? What are the social responsibility and social problem perspectives?

What is Criminology? -

Interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour, including their forms, causes, legal aspects, and control Sociological perspective Crime is social in nature and controlled by effective social policy. Criminologists – People concerned with the underlying factors behind committing crime Criminalist – people who study the statistics and patterns of crime Criminal Justice Professionals – People working within the field

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What is crime? -

Any human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of a jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws, and for which there is some form of authorized consequence (sanction) Crime has a social context o Crime is a social event o Crime is a social construct o Embraces the concept of social relativity (relative to time and place)

The social context of crime -

Crime means different things to the: offender, victim, society, and the justice system

What is Deviance? -

Deviance is human activity that violates social norms or is statistically different from the average.

Three Criminological Perspectives to address the question, “what behaviours should be considered criminal?” -

Consensus Perspective – most people agree on what should be considered criminal and will behave in a way that avoids those behaviours o Core values o Collective will of society o Laws serve all equally o Those who violate law = unique subgroup o “we’re on the same page”

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Pluralistic Perspective – People have different views on what should be criminal so criminal behaviour is decided based on the perceived best interests of society (through a political process only after debate over the appropriate course of action). o Diverse social groups exist in society o Laws are views as useful in dispute resolution o Value neutral o Best interests of society o “we can agree to disagree.” Social Conflict Perspective – people have different definitions of crime, and the powerful are using the law to oppress the powerless. o Diverse social groups; each with different definitions of crime o Conflicts between groups is unavoidable o Conflict centres on the exercise of political power o Law = tool of politically powerful/influential o “the golden rule” (Them with the gold makes the rules)

Goal of researching criminology -

To construct theories or models that allow for a better understanding of criminal behaviour Good theory can form, inform, and reform criminal justice practice and policy Types of research: o Applied – research for scientific purposes that are also applied to the field. o Pure – research for the sake of science and to advance the study of criminology o Primary – brand new original ideas no one has studied before o Secondary – research done from other people’s research.

Social Problems Perspective: -

vs.

Macro perspective Crime is a manifestation of underlying social problems Beyond the control of individuals Solutions include gov’t investment to support social programs E.g.: National crime prevention strategy

Social Responsibility Perspective: -

Micro analysis/approach Individuals choose to commit crime Individuals are responsible for their own behaviour Focus on offender’s unique biology, psychology, background, and immediate life experience.

Chapter 2 Formative questions 1. 2.

For what purpose are crime statistics gathered? What methods are used to gather crime statistics?

Usefulness of crime statistics -

Describes nature and extent of crime Provides empirical data to support criminology theory development Assists with social policy and program evaluation Provides a picture of risk

Who uses statistical information? -

Criminologists Police Correctional administrators Politicians Lobby groups Media Gov’t policy makers

Each group may collect and use statistical material differently depending on their motive and needs. Sources of crime statistics – official stats = police, courts, corrections // unofficial stats = victimization surveys; self report studies -

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Uniform crime reporting system o Statistics Canada o Canadian centre for justice statistics Victimization survey o Statistics Canada o General social survey Self-report studies o Conducted by researchers

Uniform Crime Reports -

Established in 1961 Revised in 1992 and 2004 Based on police reports o Include only those crimes that are reported to the police Problems with the UCR o True rates of crime are underestimated (dark figure of crime – undetected and unreported) o Inconsistent police reporting methods – variability in different districts

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Methods used to “count” incidents of crime (most serious offence rule – if offender commits multiple crimes, only the most severe crime will be counted, statistically) Inconsistent legal definitions

Victimization surveys -

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Characteristics: o Data collected through random telephone surveys of selected households o Participants are asked about their experiences with the criminal justice system, perception and specific types of crimes o Includes crimes not reported to police  Figure 2.2, p. 53 (reasons for not reporting) o Combine with UCR to provide more accurate picture of crime and criminal activity Examples of Victimization surveys: o Canadian urban victimization survey o General social survey o Violence against women survey  Box 2.3 (p. 54) – highlights of VAWS survey o International crime victimization survey (p. 54) Shortcomings of Victimization surveys o Actual crime may be overreported or underreported o Honesty of victims (memory lapses) o No way to verify information from respondents o Do not record information on incidents of “victimless” crimes

Self-report studies -

Most studies conducted on youth Help provide a more clear and complete picture of crime and criminals Particularly useful to highlight the relationship between social class and crime Table 2.2 (p. 58) Sample Questions Shortcomings of SRS o Inaccuracy of information  Respondent may fail to disclose or exaggerate information  Participant may not remember o Lack of standardized collection methods  Comparable questions  Time frame  Geographic areas

Observational data -

Interviews, participant observation, unobtrusive observation (field/covert observation) Advantage of natural setting Shortcomings of OD o Time consuming

o o o o

Must remain detached Labour-intensive Subjective interpretation  individual biases, individuals’ physical limitations, mental limitations Smaller sample sizes

Alternative sources of information about crime -

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Commissions of inquiry o Truth and reconciliation commission – crimes committed against aboriginal children (assault/sexual assault) while in residential schools o Arbour commission – assaults committed by staff against FSW in prison o Commission on systemic racism in the Ontario criminal justice system – crimes committed by police and correctional staff on African Canadians o Commission of inquiry into missing and murdered indigenous women (TBA) Crises index for justice o Mennonite central committee (MB); o Examined the crime rate, incarceration rate, spending on prisons, spending on community corrections

Social dimensions of crime -

Reveal a relationship between a measurable variable and crime Correlation does not imply causation Correlates of crime are those variables observed to be related to crime

Correlates of crime 1. Age -

One of the strongest correlates of crime Criminal activity associated with younger people (youth 12+) compared to other stages of life Criminal victimization also associated with age i. Between 15-24 – most likely to commit crime ii. 15-24 – also most likely to be victim of crime iii. Risk of victimization of crime lessens with age iv. Risk of criminal activity also lessens with age

2. Gender a. Best single predictor of criminality b. Offenders are most likely to be male (80% male to 20% female roughly) c. Rate of criminality has increased significantly since 1960’s i. More opportunity? (women entering the workforce more due to war) d. Female offenders more likely to play secondary roles in criminal events (followers rather than children) 3. Ethnicity a. Data/stats come from studies of incarcerated offenders or inmate profiles b. Aboriginal people are over-represented in correctional facilities (provincial and federal)

c. Aboriginal people are more likely to be victims of violent offences than non-Aboriginals. d. Aboriginal people more likely to plead guilty to charges 4. Social class a. Crime committed by people from all social classes b. Disagreement in the literature about relationship between social class and crime c. Current literature presents significant relationship between class and crime i. Specific types of offences ii. People from lower socioeconomic status more likely to be monitored, apprehended, charged, and convicted. iii. The larger the socioeconomic class gap, the higher the crime rate Homicide Rate in Canada (2018) -

660 homicides (554 in 2010; 612 in 2006) Edmonton – 4th highest homicide rate in Canada (2018) – 37 deaths National homicide rate has been relatively stable for the past decade Rates today are well below the peak rate seen in the mid 1970s.

Costs of crime in Canada -

Total (tangible) social / economic costs of criminal code offences in Canada approx. $31.4B (2008) Most direct impact of crime borne by victims i. Of the total estimated costs, $14.3B incurred for med attention, hospitalizations, lost wages, missed school days, stolen/damaged property ii. Productivity losses represented 47% of the total costs borne by victims followed by stolen/damaged property (42.9%) and health care costs (10.1%)

Cost of doing justice -

CJS cost $15B in 2008: i. Policing services (57.2%) ii. Corrections (32.2%) iii. Courts (4.5%) iv. Prosecutions (3.5%) v. Legal aid (2.5%)

Cost of incarceration -

Avg cost per inmate federally is $117 778 per year (female inmates cost more) Avg national cost for offender in the community is $29 537 A four-year degree in university costs less than incarceration for one offender for one year. Chapter 3

Formative questions 1. How are criminal offences classified?

2. What are the theoretical explanations for violent crimes, property crimes and public order crimes? 3. How do the social responsibility and social problems perspective apply to crime categories? 4. What are “victimless” crimes? 3 classifications of crime 1. Violent crime a. Homicide – less than 1% of all crime i. Culpable homicide (responsibility, “blame”) 1. First degree murder (intentional; premeditated) ; second degree murder (intentional but unplanned) ; serial murder (more than one incident over time) ; mass murder (one incident, many victims) 2. Manslaughter (non-intentional) 3. Infanticide (mother kills baby in first year of life; usually a result of PPD) ii. Non-culpable homicide 1. Justifiable homicide (eg: police) 2. Excusable homicide (eg: self defence) b. Sexual assault i. CCC identifies 3 levels of sexual assault based on degree of violence 1. Level 1- unwanted touching, rubbing 2. Level 2- weapon or threat of harm 3. Level 3-victim is physically harmed ii. “date rape” = sexual assault within context of dating relationship iii. One of the most under-reported criminal offences (Stigma, shame, fear) c. Robbery i. Violent, personal crime ii. Involves threatened or actual use of force or violence in the commission of a theft or attempted theft iii. Low clearance rate d. Assault – mostly by males i. Intentional or threatened application of force on another person without consent ii. Categories: 1. Level 1 assault: including punching, slapping, pushing, etc. 2. Level 2 assault: use of weapon or results in bodily harm 3. Level 3 assault: wound, maim, disfigure, or endanger life 4. Other: use of force against a peace officer e. Hate crimes i. CCC: a hate crime is committed to intimidate, harm or terrify not only a person, but an entire group of people to which the victim belongs. Victims are targeted for who they are, not because of anything they have done ii. Hate motivated crime or bias crime iii. An aggravating factor; most common charge is mischief 2. Property crime

a. Breaking and entering i. Invasion of personal territory or workspace ii. Often result in theft, destruction of property iii. Three types of B&E in CCC 1. Residential 2. Business 3. other b. Theft – youth (12-17) commit 40% of theft, mostly occurs during summer i. CCC defines different types of theft 1. Personal property 2. Gas, electricity, or telecommunications 3. Credit cards 4. Motor vehicles (separate charge) ii. Severity is determined by monetary value of stolen property 1. Theft over $5K 2. Theft under $5K c. Motor vehicle theft i. Often left unsolved ii. Often kids joyride and ditch 3. Other (crimes against the public order) a. Public order crimes b. General “catch-all” for crimes that do not fit clearly into violent or property crimes c. “…crime which involves acts that interfere with the operations of society and the ability of people to function efficiently” (Siegel, 2004) d. Behaviour that has been labelled criminal because it is contrary to shared norms, social values and customs e. Sometimes referred to as “victimless crimes” f. EXAMPLES: i. Prostitution 1. Illegal activities of publicly communicating with another for the purposes of buying or selling sexual services, material benefit from sexual services, or advertising sexual services (p.93) 2. Prostitution is not illegal in Canada ii. Illicit Drugs 1. Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 2. Two offence categories: a. Supply offenses (growing and distributing) b. Possession offences (purchase and use) Theoretical explanations for violent crime -

Social responsibility perspective: o Abnormal hormone levels; neurological dysfunction; psychotic symptoms; personality disorders o Alcohol and drug abuse

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Social Problems Perspective: o Socialization and cultural factors o Gender inequality o Violent subculture (gangs)

Theoretical explanations for property crime -

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Social responsibility perspective o Greed, boredom, impulsivity o Neurological dysfunctions o Alcohol and drug abuse Social problems perspective: o Lack of opportunity o Poverty o Theories (strain; routine activity; subcultural; differential association; labelling; social control theories)

Sociological theories: -

Socialization: lifelong process of social experience whereby individuals acquire the cultural patterns of their society Subcultural theory: sociological perspective that emphasizes the contribution made by variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomena of crime Social learning theory emphasizes role of communication and socialization in the acquisition of learned patterns of criminal behaviour and the values supporting that behaviour

Summary -

Crime data is used to describe, understand and predict trend / patterns Crime varies across different variables. Crime varies across regions, countries, and communities Notes from Video:

Moral panics – albert cohen -

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Public reaction following media reporting of crimes o Media paints black and white, exciting, exaggerated picture of crime o Media picks on specific groups (young people, ethnic groups, etc.) e.g.: over 18 only allowed//NO sweaters//no backpacks Deviance amplification* Problem identified (eg: hoodies are a problem)  (negative) media reporting  (public) social anxiety  increases social control  deviance amplification (hoodies become a symbol of deviant behaviour) Crime and order are linked, not opposite

Crimes of powerful

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Crime caused by social deprivation (lack of opportunity, poverty) but crime is also committed by those with wealth, status and power Different from ordinary crimes because: o White collar crime – using high status to commit crime (money laundering?) o Corporate / state crime – crime to benefit government institutions and big corporations (eg: explosion at BP oil; killed 14 workers; company knew of dangerous conditions but did not act on behalf of worker safety) Language = “accidents”, “mis-selling” Research – powerful have control over the information and have power to withhold that info; difficult to gain information on crimes of powerful (eg: refusal of access to information)

Gender -

Majority of crime is committed by men (all cultures, throughout time) o Socialization theory – female and males are socialized differently (masculine gender stereotypes/roles vs feminine gender stereotypes/roles) = toxic masculinity (driving fast, being strong, being reckless/”courageous”), females expected to grow to be focused on family, vulnerable, mind own business o “control theory” – girls controlled more than boys, by family during teenage years  Boys have more unregulated and unsupervised time away o Men have more motivation to commit crime, as well as more opportunity o Hegemonic masculinity – society sets up ideal man - “powerful” (job, influence over others and esp. over females, successful, strong, etc.), so men who can’t fit into this ideal try to emphasize the characteristics they DO possess, displaying toxic masculinity o Female violence rising more rapidly than male crime rate  More teenage women displaying deviant traits

Hate crimes -

Umbrella term for crimes against an individual because of their identity Victims come from stigmatised and marginalized backgrounds Likely underreported if not an act of violence Victimization surveys show hate crimes happen more often than based on police-reported data Media Stereotype  white extremists vs minority groups o Reality  Tensions exist between all groups (minority on minority hate crime)

Crime prevention -

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Situational crime prevention – group or strategies targeted at a specific type of crime (eg: burglary) to reduce opportunity and motivation for crime, and tough sanctions for offenders. Prevent crime by responding to the individual act. o Cons: Displacement  crime just moves to another area

Why do we have criminals? - Presentation by the Honourable Andrea Moen Biological embedding of early childhood adversity (information of childhood memories related to adversity stays within the body and brain) -

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Brain and endocrine development (toxic stress) o Body pumps cortisol, having a negative effect if left stagnant. Accompanied by adrenaline (fight vs flight) – damage over long periods of time o Terms:  Brain architecture – layout of neurons, and effects of different, interrelated parts of the brain.  Environment (social) – impact of brain development  Epigenetics – process of DNA to body (or social) translations (methylation)  Intergenerational toxic stress  Study of epigenetics - Intergenerational trauma – For example: Residential schools and intergenerational consequences o *See resources in slides (BB learn)  Can negative brain architecture be corrected? – difficulty of correction increases with age (How brains change – Dr. Doydge)  Alberta Family Wellness initiative – attempts to encourage use w free training and resources o Right vs left brain (pre-frontal ...