Delinquency PDF

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Summary of the lecture on delinquency - consists of the risk factors propelling people towards delinquency. ...

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Factors which may promulgate Delinquency Delinquents (Alampay, 2006): -

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Juvenile delinquents are minors, usually defined as being between the ages of 10 and 18, who have committed some act that violates the law. The overarching theoretical perspective when researching the factors leading to delinquent behaviour is the idea that people develop within a complex system of relationships, and are affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment (Trickett, 1997; Bronfenbrenner & Moms, 1998). This is known as a contextual or ecological perspective of development. Thus, juvenile delinquency is not the outcome of a single cause. Rather, it results from multiple risk factors in both the child and his or her environment that interact with each other.

Factors: Child-centered factors 1. Neuropsychological functioning and prenatal risk -

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Several researchers have found that problems or deficits in neuropsychological processes strongly predict early, chronic, and aggressive antisocial behavior (Moffitt, 1993; Wasserman, Keenan, Tremblay, Coie, Herrenkobl, Loeber & Petechuk, 2003) Neuropsychological impairment is indicated by inattentiveness, impulsivity, hyperactivity, or a general difficulty in controlling emotions and behaviors. Neuropsychological problems have been associated with disruptions in the prenatal development of the brain: Maternal malnutrition and drug or alcohol abuse, or fetal exposure to toxic agents, are some of the factors known to interfere with the fetus's brain development (Moffitt, 1993; Kashani, Jones, Bumby & Thomas, 1999; Holmes, Slaughter & Kashani, 2001). Associated with the foregoing factors are premature birth and low birth weight, which have also been identified as risk factors for behavior problems and delinquency (Yoshikawa, 1994). As yet there is no local research indicating a direct link between juvenile delinquency and neuropsychological problems. However, personality tests of juvenile delinquents have demonstrated inattentiveness, impulsivity, hyperactivity etc ( which are indicators of neuropsychological impairment)

2. Cognitive abilities and school achievement. - As a group, delinquent youth have been found to have lower IQ levels and poorer language skills relative to the general population. This disadvantage has been found regardless of socioeconomic class and as early as the preschool years, when years and type of schooling are not yet likely to affect intelligence (Holmes, Slaughter & Kashani, 2001). - Several longitudinal studies have also established relationships between low IQ, low verbal and reading ability, low school achievement in childhood, and the development of antisocial behavior (yoshikawa, 1994). - Although cognitive deficits may arise from neurological impairment, it is possible that this is brought about by genetic and environmental factors.

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Mental ability is an inherited trait, and children with intellectual disadvantage most likely have parents who can be similarly described. Intellectual ability is also an outcome of environmental conditions and opportunities, and pervasive poverty and lack of educational and cognitively stimulating activities can be extremely detrimental. IQ and verbal ability affect antisocial behavior by affecting the child's school achievement. Such cognitive deficits place a child at a disadvantage in school and social interactions; they are more likely to experience rejection from positive peer groups and have more difficult interactions with their teachers (yoshikawa, 1994; Holmes, Slaughter & Kashani, 2000). This also has the potential to force children to immerse themselves in peer groups with other children exhibiting delinquent behaviour Studies on delinquents in Philippines have shown : many have not completed elementary education. According to the children, the main reason for school drop-out was financial difficulty. Other reasons given were peer influence and family problems

3. Psychological factors - Poor self-concept, low self-esteem, interpersonal inadequacy have been found to act as risk factors for delinquent behaviours. However, these factors develop over time as a result of interaction between the previous child-centred factors (1,2) and familycentred factors (Carr & Vandiver, 2001). - Further, factors like high sensation seeking and low harm avoidance have also been linked to delinquent behaviour (Hawkins, 1995) The aforementioned child-centered factors should not be taken to mean that the cause of antisocial behavior resides in the child. Rather, the child's characteristics (neuropsychological and cognitive problems] and his or her environment relate with each other in a bidirectional, transactional fashion (Sameroff & Fiese, 1994) Family-centred factors 1. Parenting practices and parent-child relationships - Inadequate child-rearing practices are among the most powerful predictors of antisocial behavior (Wasserman et aI., 20031. The following aspects of parenting have been particularly emphasized in the research literature: 1) parental hostility and rejection; 2) extent of parental monitoring or supervision; 3) degree of parental involvement; and 4) parental discipline and socialization practices. - Parental hostility and rejection: parents who are rejecting and hostile have children who are at higher risk for delinquency (yoshikawa, 1994; Wasserman et al., 2003). Rejection is manifested in the parent's lack of sensitivity and responsiveness to the child's needs. Such, parents are often critical of the child and are harsh in their interactions with him or her - Extent of parental monitoring/supervision: Parental failure to monitor children’s activities, whereabouts, or friends can also weaken children’s capacity to pattern socially appropriate models of behavior. Low levels of monitoring. and involvement, unsurprisingly, predict higher levels of delinquent behavior in the child. - Discipline and socialisation practices: discipline practices that are harsh and inconsistent or noncontingent on the child's behavior likewise engender antisocial behaviors. Noncontingent discipline means that the parent's response does not hinge on the child's behavior, but is rather a function of other factors such as mood or

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circumstance. As a consequence, the child is' unable to clearly differentiate between positive and negative' behavior, and has difficulty developing behavioral self-control. Psychologists have argued that certain family environments serve as "training ground" for antisocial behaviors (Patterson, DeBaryshe & Ramsey, 1989). In such environments, parents engage in coercive interactions with the child, using force, threats, and other high-amplitude behaviors such as hitting and verbal attacks as a means to control the child’s behavior (Patterson, DeBaryshe & Ramsey, 1989; Dishion, Patterson, Stoolmiller & Skinner, 1991; Sampson & Laub, 1994). Maltreated children have been found to be more aggressive with peers than non-maltreated children; abused children have been observed to .exhibit anger and threatening behaviors, rather than helpfulness, towards a peer who is hurt or crying (Main & Goldwyn, 1984). Often parents fail to provide effective consequences for the child's misbehavior, and serve as models themselves of inept and even abusive interactions. Negative and ineffective parenting also weakens the parent-child emotional bond or attachment. Based on the sociological theory of social control, the probability of antisocial behavior increases when the individual's bond to key societal institutions (i.e., family, school, and work) is weak (Sampson & Laub, 1994).

2. Family stressors - The experience of pervasive poverty, unemployment, and marital conflict in the family increase the risk for juvenile delinquency. These factors don't directly place a child at risk for juvenile delinquency, however, these factors influence parenting practices and family management, which (as seen above) can lead to delinquent behaviour - These stressors severely tax the psychological resources of parents, resulting in decreased responsiveness, affection, and involvement, and increased punitiveness and irritability towards the child (Yoshikawa, 1994; Sampson & Laub, 1994). - Mothers' discipline strategies have been shown to be influenced by stresses from negative life experiences, daily hassles, financial burdens, and medical conditions. - Marital conflict affects the child indirectly by way of its detrimental effect on parenting. It can affect the child directly as well, however; many boys exposed to marital conflict and violence exhibit more aggressive behaviors, while girls become withdrawn, anxious, and depressed (Grych, Fincham, Jouriles & McDonald, 2000). These authors have observed that witnessing conflict ' between one's parents generates high levels of anxiety and biological arousal in the young child, making it difficult for him to regulate his emotions and behaviors. If the experience is pervasive, the child experiences increasing difficulty in self regulation and engages in antisocial, disruptive behaviors as a means of managing internal distress and anxiety. - High supervision, effective discipline and positive attachment are protective factors. -

Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber (1986) conducted a meta analysis on the relationship between family factors and juvenile delinquency. Analyses of longitudinal data show that socialization variables, such as lack of parental supervision, parental rejection, and parent-child involvement, are among the most powerful predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. Mediumstrength predictors include background variables such as parents' marital relations and parental criminality. Weaker predictors are lack of parental discipline, parental health, and parental absence.

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The effect of these factors seems to be about the same for boys and for girls.

Peer relationships - There’s a widely held belief that peers can be a bad influence on a child or adolescent, and they can pressure the child to engage in antisocial acts - Research in this area is conflicting, with some studies suggesting that relationships with antisocial peers are the cause of aggressive and antisocial behaviour, while other studies have shown that antisocial peers are the consequence of delinquent behaviour. - Longitudinal studies have revealed that behavior problems and problematic parentchild interactions earlier in childhood were significantly correlated with involvement with antisocial peers in later childhood and adolescence (Kashani, Jones, Bumby, & Thomas, 1999; Wasserman et al., 2003) - Studies of peer group formation and social status in childhood show that aggressive behaviors lead to peer rejection (Kupersmidt & Coie, 1990). Rejected children are disliked and excluded because they are more aggressive and they lack many social skills that are necessary in making and keeping friends. Researchers propose that such rejected children band together and meet each others' social needs that have been unfulfilled by their families or other peer groups (Kashani et al., 1999; Wasserman, 2003). - Moreover, given their common risks and backgrounds, children in delinquent peer groups are more tolerant, even approving, of delinquent behaviors. - To maintain their status in their peer group, they may purposively commit antisocial acts such as truancy and destruction of school property, bullying classmates, and disrupting classes (Dishion, Patterson, Stoolmiller & Skinner, 1991; Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989). - Studies that have looked at adolescents also found that preexisting family factors predict deviant peer group membership. For example, Fuligni and his colleagues (2001) found that low levels of family cohesion and attachment, inadequate parental monitoring, and excessive psychological control brought about more extreme peer orientation (i.e., a greater willingness to sacrifice parental values for the sake of peers). - In turn, extreme peer orientation led to a higher likelihood of association with more deviant peers, as well as more problem behaviors and lower school achievement. - Further, Learning theory of crime suggests that delinquent behaviour is learned from peers. So, as a result of family and individual factors, children may join a peer group of equally at-risk peers and learn delinquent behaviour from them.

Complementary to this, research has shown that stable families, supportive parenting practices, good attachment to parents, positive social orientation and healthy beliefs & clear standards serve as protective factors against delinquent behaviour (Hawkins, 1995). The traditional approach to addressing juvenile crime has focused largely on punitive measures imposed by the juvenile justice system and law enforcement. Critics argue that this approach is reactive, however, and fails to stem the tide of violence in the community. They believe, instead, that efforts should focus on prevention and should address the social,

economic, and health issues affecting the child. While prevention experts do not recommend abandoning punitive intervention methods once a youth commits a crime, they do suggest supplementing these measures with a holistic approach that also addresses the environmental factors that lead to delinquent behavior. A key strategy is to address delinquency from a family-centered perspective, in which the goal is to bolster existing support systems by involving parents, siblings, and caregivers

THE IDENTIFICATION OF EARLY DELINQUENT TENDENCIES IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN IN UMATILLA AND UNION COUNTIES IN OREGON -Winters, 1965 -

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A single situation or characteristic does not make the delinquent. The delinquent is a combination of many characteristics and the result of situations, contributing to this condition. This study looked at common factors between delinquents Findings: A poor family situation was inevitably present in these delinquents. Desirable family relationships were lacking,when the person did not feel that he was loved or wanted at home. He lacked a sense of security and self- respect in connection with the various members of his family. He also felt that he was not well treated at home, and the discipline of the home was either too strict or too lax. In school relations, the tested delinquents felt that they were not a part of the school. They felt that they did not count for something in the life of the institution. They felt that for the most part they were not liked by the students or teachers. They did not find the school work at their level of maturity or interest. They did not particularly enjoy being with other students....