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Desalination Engineering About the Author Nikolay Voutchkov, PE, BCEE, is an internationally recognized expert in the field of membrane water and wastewater treatment with extensive experience in the development of seawater desalination projects. He is the president of Water Globe Consulting, LLC, ...

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Desalination Engineering

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About the Author

Nikolay Voutchkov, PE, BCEE, is an internationally recognized expert in the field of membrane water and wastewater treatment with extensive experience in the development of seawater desalination projects. He is the president of Water Globe Consulting, LLC, which provides independent engineering advisory services to the desalination and water reuse industry. Mr. Voutchkov is an active member of the WateReuse Association’s Desalination Committee, the American Water Works Association’s Desalination and Membrane Processes Committees, the American Membrane Technology Association, and the International Desalination Association.

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Desalination Engineering Planning and Design Nikolay Voutchkov, PE, BCEE Water Globe Consulting, LLC

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

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Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 978-0-07-177716-2 MHID: 0-07-177716-4 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-177715-5, MHID: 0-07-177715-6. McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative please e-mail us at [email protected]. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. Information has been obtained by McGraw-Hill from sources believed to be reliable. However, because of the possibility of human or mechanical error by our sources, McGraw-Hill, or others, McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information and is not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results obtained from the use of such information. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.

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Contents Preface  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Acknowledgments  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii Abbreviations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv

1 Desalination Engineering: An Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2  Terminology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3  Overview of Desalination Technologies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4  Thermal Desalination  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1  Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2  Multistage Flash Distillation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.3  Multiple-Effect Distillation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.4  Vapor Compression  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5  Membrane Desalination  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1  Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2  Electrodialysis  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3  Reverse Osmosis  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



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2 Source Water Quality Characterization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2  Watershed Sanitary Survey  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3  Assessment of the Pathogen Content of Source Water  . . . . . . . 2.4  Overview of Source Water Constituents  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5  Minerals  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1  Mineral Content of Seawater  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2  Mineral Content of Brackish Water  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6  Dissolved Gases  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7  Particulate Membrane Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.1  Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.2  Parameters and Measurement Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.3  Threshold Levels of Particulate Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8  Colloidal Membrane Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.1  Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.2  Parameters and Measurement Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.3  Threshold Levels of Colloidal Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9  Mineral Membrane-Scaling Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.1  Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.2  Parameters and Measurement Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.3  Threshold Levels of Mineral Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . .



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2.10  Natural Organic Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.1  Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.2  Parameters and Measurement Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.3  Threshold Levels of Organic Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11  Microbial Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.1  Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.2  Parameters and Measurement Methods  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.3  Threshold Levels of Microbial Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12  Combined Impacts of Various Types of Foulants  . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13  Membrane Fouling Diagnostics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.1  Laboratory Autopsy of Biofouled Membranes  . . . . . . . 2.14  Water Quality Analysis for RO Desalination  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



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3 Fundamentals of Reverse Osmosis Desalination  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2  Reverse Osmosis Membrane Structures, and Materials  . . . . . . 3.2.1  Conventional Thin-Film Composite Membrane Structure  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2  Thin-Film Nanocomposite Membrane Structure  . . . . 3.2.3  Cellulose Acetate Membranes  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4  Aromatic Polyamide Membranes  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3  Spiral-Wound, Hollow-Fiber, and Flat-Sheet RO Membrane Elements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1  Spiral-Wound RO Membrane Elements  . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2  Hollow-Fiber RO Membrane Elements  . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3  Flat-Sheet RO Membrane Elements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4  Reverse Osmosis System—General Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1  Configuration  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2  Reverse Osmosis Process Parameters  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5  Models for Water and Salt Transport through Membranes  . . . . . 3.5.1  Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2  Nonporous Solution-Diffusion Transport Model  . . . . 3.6  Membrane Performance Factors and Considerations  . . . . . . . . 3.6.1  Concentration Polarization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2  Membrane Fouling  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3  Flux Distribution within Membrane Vessels  . . . . . . . . 3.6.4  Effect of Salinity on Membrane Performance  . . . . . . . 3.6.5  Effect of Recovery on Membrane Performance  . . . . . . 3.6.6  Effect of Temperature on Membrane Performance  . . . . 3.6.7  Effect of Feed Pressure on Membrane Performance  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.8  Effect of Permeate Back Pressure on Membrane Performance  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7  Key Membrane Desalination Plant Components  . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1  General Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2  Plant Intake  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



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3.7.3  Pretreatment  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.4  Reverse Osmosis Separation System  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.5  Post-Treatment  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.6  Desalination Plant Discharge Management  . . . . . . . . . 3.8  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Planning Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2  Plant Service Area, Capacity, and Site  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1  Service Area  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2  Plant Capacity  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3  Plant Site  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3  Intake Type and Location  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1  Brackish Water Intake Planning Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2  Seawater Intake Planning Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . 4.4  Source Water Quality  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5  Product Water Quality  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1  Water Quality of SWRO Desalination Plants  . . . . . . . . 4.5.2  Water Quality of BWRO Desalination Plants  . . . . . . . 4.5.3  Disinfection By-Products in Desalinated Water  . . . . . 4.5.4  Blending of Desalinated Water in the Distribution System  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.5  Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.6  Selection of Target Product Water Quality  . . . . . . . . . . 4.6  Plant Discharge  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1  Concentrate  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2  Spent Filter Backwash Water  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.3  Spent Membrane Cleaning Chemicals  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7  Conceptual Plant Design  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1  Scope  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2  Selection of Key Treatment Processes  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3  Equipment Selection  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.4  Treatment Process Validation and Optimization by Pilot Testing  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.5  Plant Configuration and Layout  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.6  Energy Use  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.7  Chemicals Used in Desalination Plants  . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8  Project Implementation Schedule and Phasing  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.1  Project Duration  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.2  Project Phasing  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9  Project Economics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1  Effect of Plant Size on Project Costs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.2  Concentrate Disposal and Plant Costs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3  Energy Use and Project Costs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.4  Project Risks and Costs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.10 Contractor Procurement for Project Implementation  . . . . . . . . 4.10.1  Design-Bid-Build  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10.2  Design-Build-Operate  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10.3  Build-Own-Operate-Transfer  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11  Project Funding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



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5 Environmental Review and Permitting  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2  Intakes—Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1  Open Intakes  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2  Subsurface Intakes  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3  Discharge—Environmental Challenges and Solutions  . . . . . . . 5.3.1  Salinity Increase beyond the Tolerance Thresholds of Aquatic Species  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2  Concentration of Source Water Constituents to Harmful Levels  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3  Discharge Discoloration and Low Oxygen Content  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4  Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Plant Operations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2  Greenhouse Gas Emission Management  . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5  Traffic, Noise, and Other Auxiliary Impacts  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6  Framework of Environmental Impact Assessment  . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2  Project EIA Scoping  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.3  Project Definition  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.4  Environmental Analysis  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.5  Identification of Significant Environmental Impacts and Development of Mitigation Measures  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7  Overview of the Desalination Project Permitting Process  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8  Permits Related to Source Water Intake  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.1  Key Permitting Issues  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.2  Permitting Support Studies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9  Permits Related to Plant Discharge  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9.1  Key Permitting Issues  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9.2  Permitting Support Studies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10  Permits Related to Product Water Related  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10.1  Key Permitting Issues  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10.2  Permitting Support Studies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11  Other Permits  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



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