Discovering Psychology notes ch 1 lectures PDF

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Discovering Psychology Introduction and Research Methods What is Psychology? Psychology: scientific study if behavior and mental processes. Psychologist study ranges from behavior of the individual to behavior of crowds of people (entire cultures) Psychology Origins Aristotle: Impact of physiology and psychology -argued scientific method could be applied to behavior mental processes. Rene Descartes- Interactive Dualism -There are two kinds of foundation, mental and body. This philosophy states that the mental can exist outside of the body and the body cannot think. Nature Vs. Nurture -Combination of both. Psychologist of Importance William Wundt -1874: Wrote Principles of physiological psychology -1879 established first experimental psychology lab at the University of Leipzig in Germany -beginning of modern psychology Edward B Titchener Structuralism -Student of Wundt -Involved introspection- developed by Wundt used by Titchener William James -Influenced by Darwin -opposed Wundt -behaviors help adaptation G. Stanley Hall -established first lab in the world -First president of Clark University -Founder and first president of American psychological association -studied evolutionary theory -First American to be granted a Ph.d in psychology Mary Whiton Calkins -served as APA President -first woman to be APA president and American Philosophical association Margaret Floy Washburn -First American Woman to get Ph. D in psychology -second woman to serve as APA president Francis Sumnar - “father of black psychology” -first African American to receive a Ph.d

Sigmund Freud Psycho analysis -emphasized role of unconscious conflicts and that behavior and personality are influenced by the unconscious conflicts -typically, ideas ae aggressive and sexual in nature -had a powerful influence on later theories -Behaviorism had emerged from the opposition of Freud Behaviorism -Believed science of psychology should focus on observable behaviors that could be Objectively measured (emphasized this because Freud’s theories couldn’t be) Ivan Pavlov -Russian Psychologist -received credit for the finding of respondent conditioning -well known for the dog experiment (dog would be presented food and would salivate then they would present food and sound a bell so now the dog salivates at the sound of a bell.) John Watson -studied how behavior is acquired and modified in response to the environment B.F. Skinner -Believed to limit to outwardly observable behaviors -in labs he would reinforce and punish rats and pigeons -Known for using operant conditioning and conditioning rats to push a lever for food Humanistic Carl Rogers -importance in choice and focuses on conscious experiences Abraham Maslow -Created Maslow’s hierarchy (According to Maslow, we have five categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. -thoughtco.com Can’t move on to next category until we meet the one we are on) - argued importance of psychological growth Psychology has developed as a discipline Perspectives -more specialized and diverse -people can choose a personalized specialty Biological perspective -neuroscience -physical bases of human and animal behavior -bases in the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics Psychodynamic (early experience) -The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality -simplypsychology.org

Behavioral Psychology (experience) -behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. -verywellmind.com Humanistic (human aspects of life) -Humanistic psychology, a movement in psychology supporting the belief that humans, as individuals, are unique beings and should be recognized and treated as so. -simplypsychology.org Positive Psychology -Conditions and processes contribute to optimal functioning Cognitive Perspective -The cognitive perspective is concerned with understanding. mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking, and. problem solving, and how they may be related to behavior -psychologyandsociety.com -Mental processes: These include perception, memory, thinking (such as ideation, imagination, belief, reasoning, etc.), volition, and emotion Cross Cultural Perspective -Culture is attitudes shared by a group of people -Ethnocentrism is when one’s own culture is superior in their minds -Individualistic cultures is importance in individual over group -Collectivistic cultures is importance of group over individual The evolutionary perspective -applies evolution to explain psychological processes -survival of organisms explains a lot -subject to natural selection What is a clinical psychologist? They diagnose, treat, and find causes of disorders What is a psychiatrist? They have a M.d and they do what a clinical psychologist does but focus on biological side of psychology. They use more biomedical therapies. Example. Prescription drugs Scientific Method is leader! It guides all and everyone. Scientific method definition- a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. In class definition- Scientific set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures Theory -Tentative explanation -reflects self-corrective nature of science -conclusions rest on empirical evidence Hypothesis -Testable prediction or question. Replication -to test validity and reliability one should try methods of a study again with different situations, samples, and more to see if you could get same results Independent= manipulated. Also called I.V. this is the cause

Dependent=affected by manipulation of I.V. This is the effect Empirical evidence- Empirical evidence is the information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation. Operational Definition- An operational definition of a variable is the set of procedures used to measure or manipulate it. A good operational definition is clear enough so that an independent researcher could use the same procedure (replicate the research) and get the same results Variable- an element, feature, or factor that is liable to vary or change. Statistics- the practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample. Statistically significant- this is the indication that the results are not likely occurring by chance Meta-analysis- Identify overall trends of research How to observe and describe behavior in descriptive research Longitudinal studies happen overtime Cross-sectional studies are where different ages and stages of life are directly compared Naturalistic Observation-directly observe and record, detect behavior and patterns that occur naturally and cannot be manipulated ethically Case Studies-highly detailed description of single person, usually to investigate rare unusual or extreme conditions, useful in clinical, neurological and neuroscientific areas Surveys- most efficient way to gather data, however people are not always honest. How to avoid dishonesty: Use computer surveys and ask same question in different ways Correlational studies – show how strong two factors are related Correlational Coefficient- numerical indication of magnitude and direction of relationship -no independent and dependent -can’t make casual claims Positive correlation- increasing or decreasing together. Movement is together Negative correlation- one increases and other one decreases or the opposite. Move opposite The closer to positive or negative 1 the stronger the correlation or relationship Correlation does not equal causation Only experiments show cause and effect Experimental method- demonstrate cause and effect Independent= manipulate Dependent=outcome Main effect- any change directly attributed to I.V. Confounding Variable- Any variable other than what is being studied. (we don’t want this. This is bad.) Sample- Section of population studied-this is representative Population- whole group of people being studied Experimental- exposed to experience (manipulated) Control- not exposed to experience but do not know (non-manipulated) Random Assignment- all participants have equal chance to get in and get into control or experimental

Single Blind- researchers are aware of conditions and not subjects Double blind technique- both researcher and subjects are unaware. More neutral Demand Characteristic- subtle cues that indicate type of response they expect. (most of time we do not want this. extremely rarely that we do) Placebo- fake substance with no direct effects. (we would give this to control so they are unaware they are the control Placebo effect- change attributed to attitude, beliefs, and expectations rather than to the drug, treatment, or procedure Limitations of experimentation Little to do with actual behavior Ethical considerations Less ecologically valid APA psychology research 5 Key provisions Informed consent/voluntary participation- free to decline at any time Students as research participants- if given for credit/extra credit, student must be given an alternative activity Use of deception- prefer alternatives, however allowed if it is the only way and the research is proven worth the effects of deception Confidentiality of information- we absolutely cannot disclose information about participants to anyone Information about study or debriefing- this is at the end. Especially important if deception is used. The participants are given rest of information about study including the conclusion APA (2011) Condone use of animals under curtain conditions. Must have academic purpose. Animals must have good living conditions. (food, water, clean cage, etc). Comparative psychology- studies of different animal species Ethics in research must have reasonable expectation and increase knowledge and still could potentially not be approved....