Psychology Unit 1 Notes PDF

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Psychology - Unit 1 Exam Notes ...

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 Psychology Exam Notes What is psychology? Psychology is the systematic study of the brain's mental process and behaviours.  What are the differences between a psychologist and a psychiatrist? Psychologist

Psychiatrist

-Completes a 4 year degree in psychology Completes a 6 year medical degree - Completes a 2 year post graduate degree in counselling -Is less likely to see medicine as a necessary part of the treatment process -Is more likely to view problems as the result of biological or medical processes -Can administer and interpret psychological tests 

-Can administer a variety of medical tests, perform medical procedures and prescribes drugs -Is more likely to view problems as a result of life stress and the development of maladaptive behaviour patterns -Completes a postgraduate degree in psychiatry 

Similarities -Works in a wide range of employment situations and specialist areas. -Completes a postgraduate degree in psychiatry

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What makes psychology a science? Psychology is a science as it develops hypotheses, uses a research procedure, collects systematic data, is reliable and valid. Psychology involves investigation of mental processes and behaviours. 

Ethics  Ethics in psychological research - Ethics: The standards that guide individuals to identify, good, desirable or acceptable conduct when carrying out research. - Confidentiality: Subjects have a right to not have any of their details released unless they have given written consent for this to happen. This procedure must be explained to all subjects at the beginning of any research. - Voluntary Participation:Subjects have the right not to be pressured into taking part in research and should not be discriminated against should they choose not to take part. - Withdrawal Rights: Researchers must tell subjects at the beginning of research that they are free to withdraw from a study at any time during the research and should not experience any consequences if they do so. - Informed Consent: Before research is undertaken, all subjects must be informed about the nature of the research and the participation required of them. This

 Psychology Exam Notes -

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information is to be documented and signed off by the subject. If the subject is under 18 years of age, then the parents or guardians must give the written consent. Deception:In some studies it is necessary to use deception so that the results obtained are accurate. When this happens, the researcher must make sure that the subjects do not suffer any distress from the research procedures. Debriefing:At the end of a study, subjects must be informed about the results of the study and what conclusions were made. Any distress experienced by the subject must also be addressed.

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Research Methods  7 steps in psychological research 1. Identify research problem- Identify a research problem or area of interest and conduct a literature search to find past research 2. Formulate hypotheses- A hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characters (An educated guess) 3. Design the method- Determining how you are going to test the hypothesis, Who are the participants going to be, What procedure will you use, How will you collect the data? Divided into 3 subsection: participants, materials and procedure 4. Collect the data- Organise the participants and conduct the experiment to get the raw data (data that has not been processed/coded/summarised) There are various data collection techniques that are commonly used in Psychological research (direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, etc) 5. Analyse data- Summarise, organise and represent the raw data in a logical way to help determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not. 6. Interpret results- Use analysed data to draw a conclusion from the results and refer back to the Hypothesis A generalisation is a type of conclusion. It is a judgement about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied. (e.g. will the results apply people of a different age? culture? country? gender? socioeconomic status? etc 7. Draw conclusions- Compile this information into a report that can be presented as formal research.  Sampling methods Sample: A sample is a subset, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a larger group of research interest. Population: ‘Population’ refers to the whole group of research interest that the sample is taken from.    

 Psychology Exam Notes Participant Allocation:

Random allocation: a procedure that ensures all participants have an equal chance of being selected for the experimental and control group. Experimental Group: group exposed to the IV Control Group: g  roup that is not exposed to the IV

Hypothesis a testable prediction relating to the outcome of the research being conducted, a prediction that one variable (IV) will affect another variable (DV) in a certain way. To write a hypothesis we need to know our variables – we are measuring the effect of IV on DV. If the IV is increased/decreased then the DV should increase/decrease.  Variables The independent variable-  Is the variable that is manipulated or changed to observe whether it affects another variable and what those effects are. The dependent variable- Is the variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the IV. Extraneous variables- Are variables other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV. If extraneous variables are present, it is difficult to conclude that the changes which have occurred in the DV have results because of the IV and not because of some other variable.  Types of data Qualitative data: are information about the ‘qualities’ or characteristics of what is being studied. Can be descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, etc. Example: A psychologist researching self-esteem in young children asking open-ended questions.  Quantitative data: are numerical information on the ‘quantity’ or amount of what is being studied. Can be raw data or Percentages Example: A psychologist researching self-esteem giving a multiple choice questionnaire where participants choose a response.  Primary data: Is data collected directly by the researcher (or through others) for their own purpose, usually to test a hypothesis. It is collected from the source and is sometimes described as ‘first hand’ data.  Secondary data: Is data that has been collected by someone other than the original user for their own purpose. It has been collected by some other individual, group or organisation and will not be used for the first time, which is why it is referred to as ‘secondary’ (like second-hand).  Advantages and limitations of experimental research Advantages - The experiment can be repeated - The IV can be tested against the DV to see if there is a cause and effect relationship  Disadvantages -Different settings e.g a psychology lab can change a person's behaviour leading to untrue results -The lab is not always the best place to test particular variables e.g grief or breaking up of a family. 

 Psychology Exam Notes Types of research - Cross-sectional: A study that observes participants in a setting at one point in time. - Case studies: Is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, group, organisation or situation. - Observational studies: Involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs. - Self reports: Include questionnaires, interviews and rating scales to investigate the feelings and thoughts of participants. - Longitudinal studies: A study that involved repeated observation of the same participants over days, weeks, years and decades. - Twins: Identical twins have the same genetic makeup. One twin is usually allocated the experimental condition, while the other the control condition. Nature vs nurture argument can be examined. - Adoption: Adoption studies allow psychologists to establish whether genetics determines behaviour of or the environment.   Organising and representing data - Descriptive statistics- D  escriptive statistics are used for analysing, organising, summarising and presenting data obtained for a specific sample. They include calculations such as percentages and mean scores, and preparation of tables and graphs which help ‘describe’ the data. These include tables and graphs (bar charts and line graph). - Inferential statistics-  Inferential statistics enable researchers to ‘infer’, or to make judgments or draw conclusions on the basis of some evidence, such as the data collected through research. Tests of statistical significance can be used to determine the extent to which chance operated in an experiment and whether it is at an acceptable level. The significance level of any difference, or the probability that a specific result occurred by chance, is called a p value. The ‘p’ stands for probability and shows the statistical level at which chance is likely to have operated on the results. An acceptable p value for the significance of results is established before the experiment is conducted.  Reliability and Validity of data - Validity- The degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure. What the test measures and how well it does it. - Reliability- Is the consistency of the experiment. Whether or not the scores obtained by the same person when reexamined with the same test on a different occasion varies or is reasonably consistent.  Use of animals in psychological research Benefits- Animals can be controlled easier than humans. - They reproduce faster and therefore when large quantities of subjects with the same genetic makeup are needed it is easily obtained. -Animals do not have expectations which can influence the results obtained in an experiment.  

 Psychology Exam Notes Ethical guidelines for animals in research - The use of animals must have scientific or educational merit. - The number of animals used in research must be minimised. - The purpose for the use must be scientifically ethical and weigh out the benefits for humans.  Written report vs poster report - Written report- A written report presents the research undertaken in a logical sequence including a title, abstract, introduction, method (participants, measures and procedure), results, discussion, references and appendices (if any). - Poster report- A poster report is used to present psychological research usually in a meeting or conference. The format for the poster includes a title, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion and references and acknowledgement. The poster is generally less detailed and shorter than the written report.  

History of the brain  Brain Vs heart debate: The idea is the heart and brain represent these two modes of thinking. This involves how we reason, think and make decisions. ‘Following the brain’ represents logic, consciously thought out responses. The brain represents the ‘conscious or explicit’ system. The heart represents the ‘unconscious or implicit’ system.  Mind-body problem: Is the relationship between the mind and body between mental (thoughts, beliefs, pains, sensations, emotions) and the physical (matter, atoms, neurons). Whether thoughts and feelings that happen are in addition to all physical processes in your brain, or they are there own physical processes. 2 different approaches in this debate are dualism, the idea that the mind and body exist as separate entities and Monism, the idea that the body and mind work as a cause and effect process.  Phrenology: The idea that different parts of the brain had different functions. This process is now known as localisation of brain-function. It was believed that brain organs controlled personality characteristics and mental abilities which were located on the outer surface. These lumps and bumps were often felt for to describe a person's personality.  Brain ablation: Is the process of disabling, removing or destroying selected brain tissue, by scalpel cuts during surgery. This would be then followed by an assessment of succeeding changes in behaviour. It generally results in irreversible brain damage. Brain ablation can be used to treat parkinson's disease by locating, targeting and destroying the affected area.  Electrical stimulation of the brain: Involves using a mild electrical current to stimulate areas on the surface of the brain. Wilder penfield used ESB to map out the brain by stimulating the brain with an electrical current probe and then asking patients what they felt and observed movements.  Neuroimaging techniques: In the second half of the 20th century various neuroimaging techniques were developed for medical diagnostic purposes. Structural neuroimaging

 Psychology Exam Notes includes Computerised tomography (CT scans) which use X-rays to look at the brain, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which uses harmless magnetic fields to vibrate atoms in the brain’s neurons and generate a computer image. Functional neuroimaging include Positron emission tomography (PET) scans which produce coloured images to the sh0w the brain structure, activity and function, Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans which detect and records brain activity by measuring oxygen consumption across the brain and many others including MEG, DOT, NRIS and fNRIS.    Nervous system structure - The Nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) (which is the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) (which connects everything to the brain and spinal cord). - The nervous system receives information, processes information and coates a response to the information. - The central nervous system main function is to process information received through sensory receptors. - The Peripheral nervous system main function is to communicate around the body. 

Areas of the brain   Neurons Nucleus- Contains the genetic material in chromosomes. Myelin sheath- Protects the axon. Axon- Transmits electrical impulses of information to other neurons, muscles and glands. Dendrites- Receive electrical impulses from other cells at the synapses and are transmitted throughout the body. Axon terminal- Contains neurotransmitters, helps the axon to make synaptic contacts with muscles or glands. Synapse - Transfers electrical activity (information) from one cell to another. Soma - Combies neural information received from neurons.

 Psychology Exam Notes   Sensory Neurons - Sends signals from sense organs. Motor Neurons - Sends signals to muscles to tell them to move. Interneurons/Relay Neurons - Connects neurons to other neurons.  Glial cells Provide support for neural function for example surrounding neurons to hold them in place, supplying nutrients and insulation. - Astrocytes (astroglia) are star shaped cells that provide structural support by holding neurons in place, nutritional support by regulating local blood flow, secreting chemicals that keep the neurons healthy, assisting in recovery of damaged neurons and are involved in the formation of new connections between neurons. - Microglia are small cells which act like immune system cells, protecting the neurons from intruders. They also monitor the health of the brain tissue and help to repair damaged brain cells. - Oligodendroglia insulate neurons in the CNS by forming and maintaining the myelin sheath surrounding the axon, this helps to protect neurons and speeds up the process of communication. They also absorb chemicals that the neuron secretes and secrete chemicals that the neuron absorbs. - Schwann cells form the myelin sheath around axons in the PNS.  Structure and function of brain areas  Hindbrain: Is the oldest past of the brain located deep within the brain at the top of the spinal cord. It controls the automatic survival functions and has three main structures; Medulla: Controls Heart rate, Blood pressure, Breathing, Coughing and Sneezing, These occur automatically and are essential for survival. A blow to medulla can be fatal Pons: Is located above the medulla and is the Sleep centre. It is involved with sleeping, dreaming and waking. It is the bridge between the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum Cerebellum: Is the size of a tennis ball and is located at the bottom of the brain (second largest part of the brain). It coordinates, movement (decides what muscles to use), controls posture, balance, speaking, learning and memory. If damaged walking, reacting, thinking, riding a bike etc can become difficult.  Midbrain: Located in the middle of the brain The midbrain connects the forebrain and the hindbrain Processing of sensory information (anything you feel using your five senses) Involved with movement Where we find the Reticular Formation (controls sleep/wake arousal, alertness, motor activity) If the RF is stimulated a person would wake up (instantly), if it was cut you would fall into a coma.  Forebrain: Is the largest and most prominent part of the brain, made up of Cerebrum, hypothalamus and Thalamus. It controls, thinking, learning ,memory ,perception ,aspects of emotion and aspects of personality.

 Psychology Exam Notes Hypothalamus: An endocrine gland that helps maintain the internal environment, control hunger, thirst and sleep. Thalamus: The thalamus filters information from almost all the sense receptor sites (except the nose), then passes it to relevant areas of the brain for further processing. Eg. one part of the thalamus receives information from the eye via the optic nerve and sends this information to the visual cortex for processing and interpreting. It functions like a ‘relay station’ in the brain. Cerebrum: Occupies most of the forebrain and is made of the outer cerebral cortex and masses of neural tissue. It is responsible for everything we consciously feel, think, and do. It is divided into 2 hemispheres (right and left)  Lobes of the brain - Frontal lobe- The largest lobe located in the front of the brain is responsible for behaviour, thinking, problem solving/ decision making, personality and voluntary movement. It is with the primary motor cortex which is involved in controlling voluntary movement. - Temporal lobe- It is located in the lower central area of the brain, above and around each ear and it registers auditory information (hearing) sent from the ears, is involved in the memory process and is responsible for recognition. It is together with the primary auditory cortex which is responsible for receiving and processing sound from both ears. - Occipital lobe- Located at the back of the brain, it registers visual information sent from the eyes, and is involved with perception. It is together with the primary Visual Cortex which is responsible for sight, recognition of size, color, light, motion, dimensions, etc. - Parietal lobe- Located behind the frontal lobe and occupies the upper back half of the brain, it registers bodily sensations on the opposite side of the body, language, perception, body awareness and attention. It involves the Primary somatosensory Cortex which receives and processes sensory information from the skin and body parts such as arms,hands, legs, feet, lip, tongue and so on.  Broca's area and wernicke's area - Broca’s area- is a language centre which controls speech muscles and planning speech. Damage to this part of the brain can impact on ability of speech. - Wernicke’s area- Is a language centre responsible for understanding written or spoken language. Damage to this area ca impact on ability to understand written or spoken language.  Broca’s aphasia

 Psychology Exam Notes -

Aphasia is a neurological disorder caused by damage to the portions...