Psychology UNIT 3/4 Notes PDF

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Detailed notes for Psychology Unit 3/4 based on the current VCE study design 2017-2021, covering each key knowledge point of the study design for the entire course. ...

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Units 3/4 VCE PSYCHOLOGY NOTES STUDY DESIGN 2017-2021

Unit 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes Area of Study 1: Chapter 2: Nervous System Functioning…………………………Pg 3-8 Chapter 3: Stress as a psychobiological process………………Pg 9-16 Area of Study 2: Chapter 4: Neural Basis of learning and memory………………Pg 26-29 Chapter 5: Models to explain learning……………………………Pg 30-40 Chapter 6: Process of memory……………………………………Pg 41-45 Chapter 7: Reliability of memory………………………………….Pg 46-53

Unit 4 HOW IS WELLBEING DEVELOPED AND MAINTAINED Area of Study 1: Chapter 8: Nature of consciousness…………………………….Pg 79-90 Chapter 9: Sleep……………………………………………….…Pg 91-100 Chapter 10: Sleep disturbances…………………………………Pg 101-115 Area of Study 2: Chapter 11: Defining mental health…………………………….Pg 54-60 Chapter 12: Mental Disorder……………………………………Pg 60-65 Chapter 13: Specific Phobia…………………………………….Pg 66-74 Chapter 14: Maintenance of mental health……………………Pg 75-78 Area of Study 3: Chapter 1: Research Methods………………………………….Pg 17-24 2

CHAPTER 2 NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONING Area of Study 1: How does the nervous system enable psychological functioning?

Key Knowledge: The roles of different divisions of the nervous system (central and peripheral nervous systems and their associated sub-divisions) in responding to, and integrating and coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body. Human Nervous system: a complex, highly organised network of specialised cells that enables the brain to receive info about what is going on from both inside and outside the body and to respond appropriately. Three main functions of nervous system: - Receive, process and coordinate a response to information

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: • consists of brain & spinal cord • main function: process information received from body’s internal & external environments —> to activate appropriate responses Brain (control centre/master regulator) • an intricate network of cells that plays a vital role in processing info received through neural pathways from the body & in directing actions within the body Spinal cord • long, thin bundle of nerve fibres that extends from base of the brain to the lower back • encased in series of bones called vertebrae that extend further than cord Three main functions of spinal cord: 1. Receive sensory info from the body (via peripheral nervous system) & send these messages to the brain for processing. (e.g. an itch on your big toe, the sensation of heat as you step into a warm bath and the pain of a sprained wrist are all carried via spinal cord to brain area responsible for processing this type of sensory info) 2. Receive motor info from the brain and send it to relevant parts of the body (via the peripheral nervous system) to control muscles, glands & internal organs so that appropriate actions can be taken (e.g to pick up a water bottle and bring it to your mouth for a drink, neural messages are sent from primary motor cortex to muscles in shoulder, upper arm, forearm, wrist and fingers) 3. Initiate a spinal reflex

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM • CNS relies on PNS to link it to rest of the body - messages can be carried to & from the brain via spinal cord • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the entire network of nerves located outside the CNS. It extends from the top of the head, throughout the body to the tips of the fingers and toes and to all parts of the skin.

• Main functions: • carries info to the CNS from the body’s muscles, organs and glands (about the internal environment) and from the sensory organs (about the external environment) carries info from the CNS to the body’s muscles, organs and glands •

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• subdivision of peripheral nervous system comprising a network of nerves that carries sensory info to the CNS & motor info from the CNS

• sensory info received at sensory receptor sites in body (skin, muscles, joints, tendons) & carried along sensory neural pathways by sensory neurons

• motor info is carried along motor neural pathways by motor neurons to skeletal muscles to control their activity by causing them to contract or relax • sensory info = afferent, motor info = efferent

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects CNS to body’s internal organs and glands, providing feedback to the brain about their activities

• is called ‘autonomous’ as many of organs, glands & processes under its control are self-regulating and therefore occur without conscious effort and are not usually under our voluntary control

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (subdivision of autonomic nervous system)

• activates internal muscles, organs and glands to prepare the body for vigorous activity or to deal with a stressful or threatening situation

• activated by a stressor or fear stimulus and enhances survival by providing an immediate response to any kind of emergency

• when you perceive an emergency or experience a crisis, sympathetic nervous system activates specific organs and glands to respond. These adrenal glands and release hormones (adrenaline) into the bloodstream. These circulate throughout body, enhancing effects of sympathetic nervous system by activating various muscles, organs and other glands in preparation for dealing with stressor or potential threat • Physical changes: • heart rate & blood pressure increase • breathing rate increase • sugar and fat released from storage to provide instant energy to skeletal muscles • pupils dilate (expand) - allow more light to enter eye & enhance vision • sweat glands increase production of sweat (to cool body) • digestion is slowed down

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (subdivision of autonomic nervous system)

• helps to maintain the internal body environment in a steady, balanced state of normal functioning in times of minimal stress and in the absence of threat

• Physical changes: • heart rate & blood pressure decreases • pupils contract • release of sugar and fats are minimised

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Key Knowledge:

The distinction between conscious and unconscious responses by the nervous system to sensory stimuli, including the role of the spinal reflex.

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A conscious response to a sensory stimulus is a reaction that involves awareness. You have paid attention to stimulus and thus know about it Usually the response will be voluntary, ‘intentional’ reaction Examples of conscious responses: • Response to external stimuli - when you step outside and feel the air temperature, you will make a conscious response when you decided whether to put on a jacket. OR if the sun is shining brightly, you may choose to wear sunglasses, a hat or both. • Response to internal stimuli - if you feel a stomachache in class at school. Depending on severity of ache, you may decide to ignore it, stroke your stomach, tell someone about it, excuse yourself and leave the room.

• An unconscious response to a sensory stimulus is a reaction that does not involve awareness. • It is involuntary, unintentional, automatic and we cannot ordinarily control its occurrence. • Examples of unconscious responses: • Response to internal stimuli - in response to stimuli about the state of different bodily systems, the ANS unconsciously regulates their functioning pumping blood from your heart, digesting your food etc.

• Response to external stimuli - spinal reflex

THE SPINAL REFLEX: (unconscious response) • A spinal reflex is an unconscious, involuntary and automatically occurring response to certain stimuli initiated within the spinal cord without any involvement of the brain.

• response to an incoming stimulus is automatically ‘reflected back’ from spinal cord without any initial input from brain and before the brain processes conscious perception of stimulus.

• Eg. Touching the hot metal handle of a frying pan (neural pathway in a spinal reflex) • You would automatically “withdraw” your hand to release the handle before sensory info travels all the way to your brain & thus before pain is actually experienced.

• sensory receptor cells within the skin of your fingers detect the heat & send neural messages via one or more sensory neurons to your CNS - but first point of contact in CNS is SPINAL CORD

• It responses with a message via one or more motor neurons to move the appropriate muscles in your hand to release the hot object —> withdraw the hand and is thus called a withdrawal reflex

• While the transmission of info from spinal cord to brain only takes a fraction of a second, this saved time may be important in terms of minimising harm, or even saving the life of the organism.

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Key Knowledge:

The role of the neuron (dendrites, axon, myelin and axon terminals) as the primary cell involved in the reception and transmission of information across the synapse (excluding details related to signal transduction).

ROLE OF THE NEURON: A neuron is an individual nerve cell that is specialised to receive, process and/or transmit information. It communicates with one another, & with muscles & glands. It enables the nervous system to function.

• Carry info (‘neural messages’) in form of an action potential (or neural impulse) to appropriate part of the nervous system to interpret message & enable a response

• Sensory = transmits info from sensory receptors, sensory organs, tendons or muscles to CNS • Motor = carries info to cells in bodily organs, muscles or glands from CNS *Electrical message inside neuron but when it goes out it is a chemical message

Dendrites • an extension of a neuron that detects and receives info from other neurons • have tiny protrusions or outgrowths like knobs called dendritic spines • each spine provides site with receptors where a neuron can connect with and receive info from a neighbouring neuron

Axon • a single, tubelike extension that transmits neural info to other neurons (or cells in muscles and glands)

Myelin • white, fatty substance —surrounds and insulates axon (like plastic tubing around copper wires in an electrical cord) • without myelin sheath, interference from activity of other nearby axons may occur • myelin sheath allows —> rapid movement of message along axon without being interrupted/distorted

Axon terminals • small branches at the end of an axon (axon collaterals) • each axon terminal has a small knoblike swelling at its tip called a terminal button (synaptic vesicle, synaptic knob/ synaptic button)

• terminal button - a small structure like a sac that stores and secretes neurotransmitter that is manufactured by the neuron & carries its chemical message to other neurons/cells

Pathway of neural travel Info always travels in one direction through a neuron It is received by dendrites, passes through the soma and exits from the axon Neural message to be sent by a neuron originates at the soma - in the form of an electrical signal When it reaches axon terminals, it stimulates release of neurotransmitter from terminal buttons Neurotransmitter will carry message to the next neuron in chemical form

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Key Knowledge:

the role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of neural information between neurons (lock-and-key process) to produce excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or inhibitory effects (as with gamma-amino butyric acid [GABA]).

ROLE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS: When neurons communicate with one another — send neurotransmitter across the tiny space (synaptic gap/synaptic cleft) between terminal buttons of one neuron — which release neurotransmitter and dendrites of another, which receive neurotransmitter. Synapse - the site where communication occurs between adjacent neurons • terminal buttons of presynaptic (sending) neuron and the dendrites of postsynaptic (receiving) neuron Neurotransmitter is a chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue. When carrying a message to another neuron, neurotransmitter works by binding to receptor sites of post-synaptic neurons that are specialised to receive that specific neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter that does not bind to receptors in postsynaptic neuron is absorbed back into terminal buttons by presynaptic neuron in a process called reuptake. Neurotransmitter will have either two effects - an excitatory effect (stimulate or activate postsynaptic neurons to perform their functions) or inhibitory effect (block or prevent postsynaptic neurons from firing). Neurotransmitters also occur as hormones. Eg. noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is a neurotransmitter and hormone. Secreted as a hormone by the adrenal glands into the blood and as a neurotransmitter from neurons.

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Glutamate (Glu) is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS. It enhances info transmission by making postsynaptic neurons more likely to fire. Release of glutamate strongly associated with enhanced learning & memory Too much/too little glutamate = harmful to neurons & brain functioning eg. high concentrations of glutamate can result in over-excitation of receiving neurons. —> may lead to neuronal damage/and/or death.

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Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) is primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS. Works throughout the brain to make postsynaptic (receiving) neurons less likely to fire. One of its role —> to fine-tune neurotransmission in the brain & maintain neurotransmission at an optimal Without inhibitory effect of GABA, activation of postsynaptic neurons might get out of control Uncontrolled activation could spread throughout brain, causing seizures

NEUROTRANSMISSION AS A LOCK & KEY PROCESS • Each type of neurotransmitter has a chemically distinct shape • When released by presynaptic neuron, neurotransmitter searches for the correctly shaped receptor site on the dendrites of post-synaptic neurons.

• Like a key in a lock, a neurotransmitter’s shape must precisely match the shape of the receptor site on the postsynaptic neuron’s dendrites in order to bind to its receptors

• The binding ‘unlocks’ the postsynaptic neuron’s response so that the neurotransmitter causes changes to the neuron, resulting in an excitatory or inhibitory effect.

• The neurotransmitter is the key and the receptor site is the lock but only for a specific key. DRUGS AND NEUROTRANSMITTER AGONIST: Agonist - increases neurotransmitter effect Nicotine ANTAGONIST: Antagonist - decreases neurotransmitter effect on the post-synaptic neuron Acetylcholine

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Key Knowledge:

the effects of chronic changes to the functioning of the nervous system due to interference to neurotransmitter function, as illustrated by the role of dopamine in Parkinson’s disease.

Parkinson’s disease - a chronic (continues over a long period of time) & degenerative (disease and its symptoms progressively get worse over time) neurological condition that affects both motor and non-motor functions.

ROLE OF DOPAMINE • Neurons in the substantia nigra produce neurotransmitter dopamine. • This means that when the substantia nigra (a structure located within the basal ganglia in the midbrain) is diseased/damaged, the amount of dopamine available is significantly reduced.

• Dopamine from substantia nigra carries messages that allow smooth, coordinated function of body’s muscles and movements, when at rest and during periods of activity.

• Fewer neurons in substantia nigra means that less dopamine will be produced.

SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE MOTOR SYMPTOMS: • Tremor involving continuous, involuntary shaking (trembling) of the body is the best-known symptom, but it is not necessarily experienced in all cases. • Slowness of voluntary movement (Bradykinesia) • Muscle rigidity - “stiff muscles”, whereby the muscles seem unable to relax and are tight, even when at rest, is another key symptom. Postural instability - difficulty maintaining an upright posture and a steady balanced position. • NON-MOTOR SYMPTOMS: • Speech problems - change in verbal fluency (muscles involved in speech may be affected, can reduce volume, clarity and speed of speech) Decrease or loss of sense of smell (anosmia) • Pain & discomfort in an arm or leg • • Disturbed sleep • Fatigue that is not relieved by resting, constipation, problems urinating, & mental health problems such as confusion, panic attacks, anxiety disorder and depression • Problems with cognitive function (slowness of thinking, impaired planning & decision making & memory loss).

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CHAPTER 3 STRESS AS A PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL PROCESS Key Knowledge: sources of stress (eustress and distress) including daily pressures, life events, acculturative stress, major stress and catastrophes that disrupt whole communities. Stressors - a stimuli that cause or produce stress and challenge our ability to cope. • External stressor - originates outside the individual from situations and events in the environment eg. having too much homework, being nagged by parents. • Internal stressor - originates within the individual eg. personal problem that causes concern about potential consequences or experience of physical pain that may be perceived as signalling an untimely illness. Stress has both biological and psychological components & consequences - considered a psychobiological process. It is a state of physiological (biological) and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope.

EUSTRESS AND DISTRESS Eustress is a positive psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of positive psychological states such as feeling enthusiastic and motivated, excited, active and alert. Distress is a negative psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states such as anger, anxiety, nervousness, irritability or tension. All stressors produce a non-specific stress response. Regardless of whether a stressor involves positive eustress or negative distress, our body undergoes the same physiological changes.

SOURCES OF STRESS • Daily pressures (minor events that occurs everyday and accumulates to stress) • little problems of everyday living that are irritants - events that annoy or bother us and makes us upset or angry. • minor troubles/concerns that arise day to day living eg. having an argument with a friend, sudden appearance of unwanted pimple, waiting in a queue, having many things to do at once.

• Life events (something significant that causes change) • changes that focus us to adapt to new circumstances eg. loss of a significant relationship, changing schools. • Life events - choices we make as individuals, not just things that happen to us. the idea that change associated with life event can • cause stress was first proposed by American doctor Thomas Holmes & his psychologist Richard Rahe (1967). • Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - measures stress in terms of life events.

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• Acculturative stress (stress experienced when trying to adapt to a new culture) • refers to stress people experience in trying to adapt to a new culture when living in it for a considerable period of time.

• for international students, immigrants, refugees & asylum seekers coming to Australia & other countries, departure can be a means of escaping social injustice, persecution, civil unrest, political turmoil, torture, war famine or poverty. Moving to another country - temporarily or permanently can be a way of reducing stress BUT demands of adjusting to new culture can be stressful.

• Major stressors (a major event that is disturbing) • is an event that is stressful or disturbing for almost everyone ...