EDS Turan Gonen Electric Power Distribution Engineering, Third Edition CRC Press PDF

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Electric Power Distribution Engineering Electric Power Distribution Engineering Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the acc...

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EDS Turan Gonen Electric Power Distribution Engineering, Third Edition CRC Press Sai Nikhil

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Electric Power Distribution Engineering

Electric Power Distribution Engineering

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20131023 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-0705-7 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

To an excellent engineer, a great teacher, and a dear friend, Dr. David D. Robb and In the memory of another great teacher, my father Hajruddin Muezinovich

There is a Turkish proverb to the effect that “the world belongs to the dissatisfied.” I believe in this saying absolutely. For me the one great underlying principle of all human progress is that “divine discontent” makes men strive for better conditions and improved methods. Charles P. Steinmetz A man knocked at the heavenly gate His face was scared and old. He stood before the man of fate For admission to the fold. “What have you done,” St. Peter asked “To gain admission here?” “I’ve been a distribution engineer, Sir,” he said “For many and many a year.” The pearly gates swung open wide; St. Peter touched the bell. “Come in and choose your harp,” he said, “You’ve had your share of hell.” Author Unknown Life is the summation of confusions. The more confused you are, the more alive you are. When you are not confused any longer, You are dead! Turan Gönen

Contents Preface.............................................................................................................................................xxi Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ xxiii Author ............................................................................................................................................xxv Chapter 1

Distribution System Planning and Automation............................................................1 1.1 1.2 1.3

Introduction .......................................................................................................1 Distribution System Planning ............................................................................1 Factors Affecting System Planning ...................................................................4 1.3.1 Load Forecasting ..................................................................................4 1.3.2 Substation Expansion ...........................................................................5 1.3.3 Substation Site Selection ......................................................................6 1.3.4 Other Factors ........................................................................................7 1.4 Present Distribution System Planning Techniques............................................8 1.5 Distribution System Planning Models ............................................................. 10 1.5.1 Computer Applications....................................................................... 11 1.5.2 New Expansion Planning ................................................................... 12 1.5.3 Augmentation and Upgrades .............................................................. 12 1.5.4 Operational Planning ......................................................................... 12 1.5.5 Benefits of Optimization Applications ............................................... 13 1.6 Distribution System Planning in the Future .................................................... 13 1.6.1 Economic Factors ............................................................................... 13 1.6.2 Demographic Factors ......................................................................... 14 1.6.3 Technological Factors ......................................................................... 14 1.7 Future Nature of Distribution Planning .......................................................... 14 1.7.1 Increasing Importance of Good Planning .......................................... 14 1.7.2 Impacts of Load Management (or Demand-Side Management) ........ 15 1.7.3 Cost/Benefit Ratio for Innovation ...................................................... 15 1.7.4 New Planning Tools ........................................................................... 15 1.8 Central Role of the Computer in Distribution Planning.................................. 16 1.8.1 System Approach................................................................................ 16 1.8.2 Database Concept ............................................................................... 16 1.8.3 New Automated Tools ........................................................................ 17 1.9 Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation .................................................. 17 1.10 Distribution System Automation ..................................................................... 18 1.10.1 Distribution Automation and Control Functions ................................ 22 1.10.2 Level of Penetration of Distribution Automation ...............................24 1.10.3 Alternatives of Communication Systems ........................................... 30 1.11 Summary and Conclusions .............................................................................. 31 References .................................................................................................................. 32

ix

x

Chapter 2

Contents

Load Characteristics................................................................................................... 35 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Basic Definitions.............................................................................................. 35 Relationship between the Load and Loss Factors ........................................... 48 Maximum Diversified Demand ....................................................................... 58 Load Forecasting ............................................................................................. 62 2.4.1 Box–Jenkins Methodology .................................................................66 2.4.2 Small-Area Load Forecasting ............................................................66 2.4.3 Spatial Load Forecasting ....................................................................66 2.5 Load Management ........................................................................................... 70 2.6 Rate Structure .................................................................................................. 72 2.6.1 Customer Billing ................................................................................ 73 2.6.2 Fuel Cost Adjustment ......................................................................... 75 2.7 Electric Meter Types ....................................................................................... 79 2.7.1 Electronic (or Digital) Meters ............................................................ 82 2.7.2 Reading Electric Meters ..................................................................... 83 2.7.3 Instantaneous Load Measurements Using Electromechanical Watthour Meters .................................................................................84 Problems ..................................................................................................................... 88 References ..................................................................................................................92 Chapter 3

Application of Distribution Transformers .................................................................. 93 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 93 Types of Distribution Transformers ................................................................ 95 Regulation...................................................................................................... 108 Transformer Efficiency .................................................................................. 109 Terminal or Lead Markings .......................................................................... 110 Transformer Polarity ..................................................................................... 112 Distribution Transformer Loading Guides .................................................... 113 Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer ............................................................ 114 Single-Phase Transformer Connections ........................................................ 117 3.9.1 General ............................................................................................. 117 3.9.2 Single-Phase Transformer Paralleling.............................................. 118 3.10 Three-Phase Connections .............................................................................. 126 3.10.1 ∆–∆ Transformer Connection .......................................................... 126 3.10.2 Open-∆ Open-∆ Transformer Connection ....................................... 136 3.10.3 Y–Y Transformer Connection .......................................................... 141 3.10.4 Y–∆ Transformer Connection .......................................................... 142 3.10.5 Open-Y Open-∆ Transformer Connection ....................................... 144 3.10.6 ∆–Y Transformer Connection .......................................................... 147 3.11 Three-Phase Transformers ............................................................................ 149 3.12 T or Scott Connection.................................................................................... 151 3.13 Autotransformer ............................................................................................ 165 3.14 Booster Transformers .................................................................................... 168 3.15 Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformers ............................................... 169 3.16 Nature of Zero-Sequence Currents ............................................................... 170 3.17 Zigzag Power Transformers........................................................................... 176 3.18 Grounding Transformers Used in the Utility Systems .................................. 179 3.19 Protection Scheme of a Distribution Feeder Circuit ..................................... 181 Problems ................................................................................................................... 182 References ................................................................................................................ 186

xi

Contents

Chapter 4

Design of Subtransmission Lines and Distribution Substations .............................. 187 4.1 4.2

Introduction ................................................................................................... 187 Subtransmission ............................................................................................. 188 4.2.1 Subtransmission Line Costs ............................................................. 191 4.3 Distribution Substations ................................................................................ 191 4.3.1 Substation Costs ............................................................................... 195 4.4 Substation Bus Schemes ................................................................................ 198 4.5 Substation Location ....................................................................................... 198 4.6 Rating of a Distribution Substation ............................................................... 201 4.7 General Case: Substation Service Area with n Primary Feeders..................206 4.8 Comparison of the Four- and Six-Feeder Patterns ........................................208 4.9 Derivation of the K Constant ......................................................................... 211 4.10 Substation Application Curves ...................................................................... 220 4.11 Interpretation of Percent Voltage Drop Formula ...........................................224 4.12 Capability of Facilities .................................................................................. 236 4.13 Substation Grounding .................................................................................... 237 4.13.1 Electric Shock and Its Effects on Humans ....................................... 237 4.13.2 Ground Resistance ........................................................................... 239 4.13.3 Reduction of Factor Cs ..................................................................... 245 4.13.4 Soil Resistivity Measurements .........................................................248 4.13.4.1 Wenner Four-Pin Method .................................................248 4.13.4.2 Three-Pin or Driven Ground Rod Method ....................... 250 4.14 Substation Grounding .................................................................................... 251 4.15 Ground Conductor Sizing Factors ................................................................. 255 4.16 Mesh Voltage Design Calculations ................................................................ 258 4.17 Step Voltage Design Calculations ................................................................. 262 4.18 Types of Ground Faults .................................................................................264 4.18.1 Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault ..........................................................264 4.18.2 Single Line-to-Ground Fault ............................................................ 265 4.19 Ground Potential Rise ................................................................................... 265 4.20 Transmission Line Grounds .......................................................................... 275 4.21 Types of Grounding ....................................................................................... 277 4.22 Transformer Classifications ........................................................................... 279 Problems ...................................................................................................................280 References ................................................................................................................ 282 Chapter 5

Design Considerations of Primary Systems ............................................................. 283 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

Introduction ................................................................................................... 283 Radial-Type Primary Feeder ......................................................................... 285 Loop-Type Primary Feeder ........................................................................... 286 Primary Network ........................................................................................... 288 Primary-Feeder Voltage Levels ..................................................................... 289 Primary-Feeder Loading ............................................................................... 293 Tie Lines ........................................................................................................ 294 Distribution Feeder Exit: Rectangular-Type Development ........................... 294 Radial-Type Development ............................................................................. 299 Radial Feeders with Uniformly Distributed Load ........................................ 299 Radial Feeders with Nonuniformly Distributed Load ..................................304 Application of the A, B, C, D General Circuit Constants to Radial Feeders .................................................................................. 306

xii

Contents

5.13 Design of Radial Primary Distribution Systems ........................................... 312 5.13.1 Overhead Primaries.......................................................................... 312 5.13.2 Underground Residential Distribution ............................................. 313 5.14 Primary System Costs ................................................................................... 327 Problems ................................................................................................................... 327 References ................................................................................................................ 329 Chapter 6

Design Considerations of Secondary Systems ......................................................... 331 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Introduction ................................................................................................... 331 Secondary Voltage Levels ............................................................................. 332 Present Design Practice ................................................................................. 332 Secondary Banking ....................................................................................... 334 Secondary Networks ...............................................