ENG3220 Q4 P1 - Notes for quiz 4 PDF

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Notes for quiz 4...

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Subordination: WH-Clauses ★ Subordinate clause = a clause that is dominated by another constituent ○ CL → NP (TNS) VP ■ Tense is optional in subordinate clauses ★ WH Clauses ○ We’ve seen that “that” can introduce tensed subordinate clauses ○ What other words can introduce clausal complements? ■ Interrogative (question) words: ● who

when

● whose where ● which how ● what ★ What kinds of compliments can these WH-words introduce? ○ Tensed clause complements and to-innitival complements (some restrictions for particular WH-words) ○ Can call these all WH-clause complements

WH- movement ★ WH-clause complements are similar to WH-questions as independent clauses:

★ WH- word has moved to clause-initial position ★ Questioned phrase in the sentence moves from subject or object position to beginning of the independent clause

★ Rule explains the relationship between the base (original) position of the phrase and the derived position after it has moved ★ Happens in WH-clauses too:

Whether & if ★ These two words are also interrogative and introduce clausal complements

★ Whether can also introduce to-innitival clause complements (if can only introduce tensed ones)

★ Unlike WH-words, they don’t seem to be derived from movement (no base position they start in) ★ More similar to that (complementizer) – just appear in clause-initial position ★ Diagramming WH-clauses in this course is similar to that-clauses.

Practice with WH clauses

--the independent has a question mark at the end. Subordinate clauses are phrased as a question but not a question. WH question, there's a Subject Auxiliary Inversion (SAI) but in subordinate clauses there is not a SAI. WH movement is the same.

Coordinating conjunctions ★ Coordinating conjunctions, adverbs, PPs: ○ FANBOYS ○ accordingly, again, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, therefore, etc. ○ as a result, in fact, at the same time, in this way, in the meantime, in addition to, etc. ○ Join independent clauses of equal importance

Subordinating Conjunctions ★ Subordinating conjunctions & prepositions: ○ because, before, after, until, since, although, once, while, even though, unless, if, whether, WH-words, etc. ★ Show a relationship between the clauses they join ★ Coordinating conjunctions come between the two independent clauses ★ Subordinating conjunctions come before the subordinate clause (which can move in a sentence)

Practice with coordination & subordination ★ Underline the coordinate/subordinate clauses in these sentences: ○ While they were eating dinner, the dog waited patiently under the table. = subordinating conjunction ○ My boss yelled at me; however, I didn’t care. = coordinating conjunction ○ The children were excited when they saw the presents under the tree.= subordinating conjunction ○ I bought the tickets even though they were very expensive.= subordinating conjunciton. ○ After he picked up the kids at school, they bought groceries for dinner.= subordinating conjunction ○ You should arrive early and you can help me decorate.= coordinating conjunction

Subordination: Other types ★ Tensed clause complements – of verbs, prepositions, adjectives, nouns ○ I believe that she will attend. ⚆ He was happy that the team won. ○ Gina read the paper after she ate breakfast. ○ The fact that the package was late helped her case. ★ WH-clause complements ○ I wonder when he will arrive. ○ She knows who the dog chased. ○ He can’t decide whether to go to the party. ★ Bare innitival clause complements ○ The crowd watched the girl juggle. ★ To-innitive clause complements ○ Beulah wants Bill to get his degree. ★ Participial clause complements ○ We watched the dog chasing the goose.

Bare infinitival subordinate clauses ★ Verb is not tensed ○ The crowd watched the girl juggle. ⚆ *The girl juggle. ★ Some other clues to bare innitivals: ○ Try adding that – doesn’t work with untensed verb ■ *The crowd watched that the girl juggle. ○ Look for perception verb (watch, observe, hear, see, feel, etc.) ■ The kids saw [the cat catch the bird]. ■ We heard [the dog bark angrily].

★ Tree diagrams look like tensed subordinate clauses, but without TNS position:

To- infinitive subordinate clauses ★ Also lack tense, but introduced by word to

★ Often selected by verbs like want, prefer, expect, like ★ In some dialects, complementizer for can be added

★ Some verbs take to-innitival verbs without an expressed subject

★ Empty subject – the subject is still there, but not expressed in the subordinate clause ★ Two possible meanings of this sentence. The crab is too hot to eat.

★ Ambiguous due to empty subject & object

★ More evidence of empty subjects & objects:

★ We represent empty subjects in tree diagrams with PRO= (phonologically empty pronoun) ○ PRO is another well-studied phenomenon in syntactic theory

Participial Subordinate clauses ★ Some verbs select complements with a present (-ing) or past participle (-ed, -en) verb

★ Often perception verbs (again) – watch, see, observe, hear, feel, etc. ★ Same structure as other untensed subordinate clauses

Clausal subjects ★ As mentioned with that-clauses, some clauses can also be subjects

★ Not NPs, but behave like NPs in certain ways

★ Complementizers that and for are obligatory (not optional) in clausal subjects

★ Clausal subjects (but not NP subjects) can undergo extraposition – clausal subject moves to the right of the verb and subject position is lled with pleonastic it

★ English prefers to have the subject position lled ○ It’s raining ★ Many other languages don’t mind having the subject position empty – null subject languages ○ e.g., Spanish, Italian ○ How do you say “It’s raining” in Spanish? ○

These languages don’t have it-extraposition

Complementizers ★ Words that introduce subordinate clause complements ○ that, for, whether, if. ○ WH-words ★ Subordinating conjunctions & prepositions (because, since, while, unless, etc.) are sometimes considered complementizers too ○ But sometimes not, because they introduce subordinate clauses that are modiers (adverbial), rather than required verb complements

Practice with subordinate clauses

★ Find the subordinate clauses in these sentences and identify them as tensed, WH-clause, to-innitival, bare innitival, or participial: ○ Chicken Little squawked that the sky was falling.= tensed ○ They found the kitten hiding behind the tree.= participial ○ Jill persuaded Jack to leave. = to-infinitival ○ Louis wishes Bert would stop talking. = tensed ○ They heard the tree fall in the woods. = bare infinitival ○ I never understood why we had to move. = WH-clause ★ Identify the subordinate clauses in the following sentences. Are they modiers (adverbials) or verb complements? ○ I wonder if we will see them tonight. = verb complement ○ Ana knew she would be late. = verb complement ○ After he woke up, Fernando took a shower. = adverbial ○ He said that he might go.= verb complement ○ You should call me when she leaves the house. = adverbial ○ We decided where we should go this weekend. = verb complement

★ Find the subordinate clauses in these sentences and identify them as tensed, WH-clause, to-innitival, bare innitival, or participial. ■ The team hopes the game will get rained out.= tensed ■ The students were anxious for class to end. = To- infinitival ■ While he was driving, Tom fiddled with the radio. = tensed ■ We saw the bird flying over the fence. = participial ■ We saw the bird fly over the fence. = bare infinitival

Complementation & modification ★ Heads select various required complements, and the head and its complement form a larger phrase ○ kiss – selects NP complement ○ think – selects PP complement (about someone) or CL complement (that the earth is flat)

★ Modiers add optional information; not selected by a head ○ e.g., adverbs are almost always modifiers, and are transportable for this reason

Review of complements

★ Complements of verbs ★ NP complements ○ Direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement ○ NPs indicating location and measure phrases ■ The girls ran downtown. ■ My friends walked home. ■ His car cost thousands of dollars. ■ The package weighs six pounds. ○ Can test that these are NP complements by trying to move them (doesn’t work as well as with modiers): ■ ?Six pounds the package weighs. ■ ?Home my friends walked. ■ Quickly my friends walked. ○ AdjP complements – subject complement of linking verb ■ remains very happy, seems relaxed ○ AdvP complements – only with word/phrase and middle voice ■ phrased the letter very carefully ■ the bread cuts easily ○ PP complements – with certain verbs, and as subject complement of linking verb ■ put the dog in the kennel ■ think about Mary ■ appear out to lunch ○ VP complements – often with temporal aspect verbs: start, begin, finish, etc. ■ begin speaking in tongues ■ nish writing his term paper ○ CL complements – as discussed last week (tensed clause, bare/to-innitive, participial, WH-clause) ■ believe that Bert likes emus ■ see Bert running a race ■ want to study emus ■ wonder whether Bert likes emus

★ Complements of adjectives ○ PP complements

★ CL complements

★ Complements of prepositions ○ NP complements (object of a preposition)

○ VP and PP complements

○ CL complements of subordinating prepositions (or conjunctions)...