ENST Ch. 12 Notes PDF

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ENST 1500 Ch. 12 Notes w Professor Colleen McLean...

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ENST 1500 Ch. 12 Notes – The Production and Distribution of Food Introduction to food production • Ex pro basketball player Will Allen won the MacArthur “Genius Grant” – He formed the nonprofit Growing Power farm • Growing Power is a sustainable, urban farm – The last functioning farm within Milwaukee, Wisconsin, city limits – Its 3 acres of greenhouses, fish, bees, chickens, and goats feed 10,000 people each year – It uses 400 tons of the city’s food waste – It provides job training for urban youth – 5,000 visitors come to the facility each year What is the future of agriculture? • The future of agriculture will be very different from current agriculture • After 30 years of rapid population growth, millions of people depend on imported food or food aid – 20% in the developing world are undernourished • Three things are necessary to provide nourishment for people while protecting the environment: – The production of more food – Eliminating the harmful effects on the environment – Distributing the right kinds of food for everyone Agriculture has been a success • We have done well at putting food on the table – Food production doubled in the past 30 years – Food production rose faster than the population • There is more food in developing nations • World food trade is a major economic production in many countries • The Neolithic Revolution 12,000 years ago introduced agriculture and animal husbandry – Farmers in the developing world are subsistence farmers who use methods that go back millennia Subsistence agriculture in the developing world • Subsistence farmers live on small plots of land – Growing enough food for themselves – Food production is not counted in the economy – Farming is labor intensive, without inputs of industrialized farming – It is often practiced on marginally productive land • It can be sustainable if the family gets enough nutrition and manure is used as fertilizer, etc. • While it is best suited for low population densities • It occurs in regions with the fastest population growth Subsistence agriculture can succeed • Slash-and-burn agriculture can be sustainable if it is done well – It involves shifting cultivation in tropical forests

– Cultivators create highly diverse ecosystems – The cleared land supports crops for a few years – Then shifts into agroforestry―tree farms with different ground crops as the trees grow • When does this system work? – When the local human population is low Difficulties with subsistence agriculture • Subsistence farmers live close to the edge – Limited by: farm size, availability of crops, animals, tools, rainfall, pests – They are poor and cannot survive crop failures – They lack access to markets, insurance, and credit • Subsistence farms are common in: Asia, Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa – Agricultural production has lagged behind the developing world – Many depend on imported food, and prices are soaring Modern industrialized agriculture • In the early 1800s, most people in the United States lived and worked on small farms – Feeding a robust and growing nation • Farmers used traditional approaches to pests and erosion – Crop rotation, planting multiple crops, animal wastes used as fertilizer • Farming was so efficient, people could leave the farms and go to cities and towns for jobs • The Industrial Revolution came to the United States Transformation of traditional agriculture • In the mid-1800s, the Industrial Revolution profoundly changed agriculture • This revolution increased farming efficiency – Farm numbers went from 6.8 million to 2.1 million – Farms increased in size (averaging 434 acres) – The United States has frequently produced surpluses • Now, two million U.S. farms feed the nation – Plus, they produce enough for the world’s markets • Most developed nations have had this revolution – How was the agricultural revolution possible? What are the components of the agricultural revolution? • Machinery: handles every need for working soil – Seeding, irrigating, weeding, harvesting – Farmers can cultivate far more land • Infrastructure: transformed agriculture – Roads, rural electrification, university programs, markets, extension programs, transportation, loans – Governmental price and income support (subsidies) • Subsidies and fossil-fuel machinery favor corporate farms, not poor farmers

More components of the revolution • Land under cultivation: The United States has the largest area of arable land in the world (1 billion acres) – Almost all good cropland is in production or short-term reserves – Since 1960, increased yields and surpluses reduced the need for land conversion to cropland • Conservation Reserve Program: pays farmers to retire erosion-prone land and plant trees or grass – Recently, land has been planted for corn for ethanol • Any expansion of cropland will be at the expense of forests and wetlands Other components of the revolution • Fertilizers: convenient to use and readily available – Current use is 176 million tons/year, and will rise – Most increase is in China, India, and Brazil – Chemical fertilizers are made from fossil fuels – Higher fuel costs raise prices, which raises food costs • Pesticides: control insect and plant pests – But pests have become resistant to many pesticides – Losses to pests will rise as they become resistant – May affect health and the environment – Pesticide manufacture depends on fossil fuel energy A final component of the revolution • Irrigation: grows 40% of food on 18% of cropland – Irrigation is still expanding but at a slower pace – It accounts for 70% of all water use—unsustainable due to groundwater depletion – Problems include waterlogging and salinization – Mosquitoes, aquatic snails, etc. that live in irrigation ditches spread diseases and parasites The Green Revolution is born • The Green Revolution: technologies that resulted in remarkable increases in crop production • In 1943, Norman Borlaug and others bred dwarf hybrid wheat with a large head and thick stalk – Mexico tripled wheat production – Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 • Many other countries increased crop yields – Grain production exceeded population growth Benefits of the Green Revolution • The Green Revolution expanded food production – In Asia, Latin America, Africa, the Middle East • Yields are increased without new land

– Holding back deforestation • More research is continuing – Farmers are adopting these new varieties – Focusing on disease and pest resistance and climate stresses – African crop scientists are trying to improve traditional African food crops The Green Revolution is not a panacea • Each technology has external costs – Hidden cost of U.S. agriculture? $6–$17 billion/year! • High-yielding crops are hard to grow – Irrigation is causing water shortages – They need fertilizer, pesticides, and machines • Monocultures—vast areas planted in one crop – Insects and diseases spread rapidly • “Heirloom” crops and “heritage breed” animals have genetic makeup suited to a particular area – Thousands of varieties have gone extinct – Taste is lost in favor of uniform shape or color Animal farming and its consequences • 33% of all croplands feed domestic animals – 36% of U.S. cropland goes to animals • It is one of the most important activities we do – 5 billion four-footed animals; 22 billion birds – People enjoy eating meat and dairy products • There are many ways to raise livestock – In the developed world, confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) or large ranches raise animals – In the developing world, animals are raised on family farms or by pastoralists (subsistence farmers) CAFOs hurt the environment and people • Over 50% of U.S. livestock are raised in CAFOs • Billions of tons of manure enter water, causing: – Fish kills, diseases, and algal growth – Animal-based agriculture is the major pollution source of rivers in the United States • Crowded animals allow diseases to spread – Even to humans (e.g., avian flu) – Thousands of animals are slaughtered to prevent disease – Salmonella causes $2.5 billion losses/year in the United States – Animals are subject to inhumane conditions Cattle are raised on large ranches • Australia has the world’s largest ranches • 17% of the Amazon River Basin has been converted to cattle pasture – Most land is held by few ranchers with huge spreads

– Cattle production is export driven, bringing in $5 billion/year for Brazil Livestock and antibiotic use • Antibiotics are heavily used in animal husbandry – In the United States: 80% of all antibiotics • They are used to treat illnesses, to encourage growth, and to increase efficient use of feed – High in CAFOs due to the crowded conditions • Bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics – Hard to treat in infected humans • Cephalosporins are used in livestock and in children with pneumonia, strep throat, etc. – The Injection of eggs was stopped in Canada after resistant bacterial strains were found in birds and people Agro-ecosystems impact the climate • Agriculture releases more greenhouse gases than transportation • Deforestation and other land-use changes in the tropics release 25% of CO2 emissions • Livestock release 14% of total global emissions of greenhouse gases – Methane is released through belching, flatulence, and anaerobic decomposition of manure • Fertilizer releases nitrous oxide, another greenhouse gas But livestock help subsistence farmers • Pastoralists are subsistence farmers who constantly move their livestock • Livestock enhance people’s diets and quality of life – Unless they overgraze local resources – They eat plants people can’t – Manure is used as fertilizer and fuel – They improve nutrition for women and children • Pastoralists need access to land – But the land is desired by others – In 2014, the Tanzanian government wanted to give Maasai land to the Dubai royal family for hunting Biofuels and food production • Burning fossil fuels causes climate change – They release greenhouse gases • Biofuel: fuels derived from crops – Mitigates climate change―no new CO2 is released • Ethanol: made from corn (in the United States) and sugar cane (Brazil) – 40% of U.S. corn is devoted to ethanol production • Critics say ethanol diverts corn from food production – Caused 30% of the price increases in 2000–2007 Does ethanol production decrease food? • Corn is already diverted to many other uses – The United States produces 32% of the world’s corn; 45% of this is fed to livestock

Only cornstarch is used for ethanol, leaving proteins, vitamins, and fiber to produce food Some want limits to using corn, and investments in biofuels based on grasses and timber waste From Green Revolution to gene revolution • Genetic engineering inserts desired traits into plants and animals – Produces transgenic (genetically modified [GM]) varieties • Research of the Green Revolution used genes that already existed or mutated in a species – Genes can now be exchanged among bacteria, animals, and plants • Globally, farmers planted 433 million acres of transgenic crops – Half of U.S. acreage has bioengineered crops Examples of genetically altered crops • Pest-resistant cotton has genes from a bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis―Bt) • Herbicide-resistant corn and soybeans • Sorghum resistant to a parasitic plant (witchweed) • Insect-resistant corn, potatoes, cotton • Rapidly growing trees and salmon • “Stacked” products are crops with two or more biotech genes (e.g., resistance to different insects) • The potential for transgenic crops and organisms is almost unlimited The promise of biotechnology • Using GM soybean, corn, and cotton crops – Increased yields and income, decreased pesticides • Crops resistant to pests need less pesticides • Herbicide-resistant crops do well with no-till cropping, so less erosion occurs • Existing agricultural land produces more food – So less land brought into production • Developing nations can produce more food Objectives of biotechnology for developing nations • Incorporate disease and pest resistance into plants – Virus-resistant cassavas, sweet potatoes, melons • Increase plant tolerance to drought and salt – Drought-tolerant sorghum and corn • Improve nutritional value of crops – Protein-enhanced corn and soybeans • Produce pharmaceutical products in crops – Bananas and tomatoes that contain antidiarrheal vaccines What are pharma crops? • Pharma crops: crops that produce pharmaceuticals • Test crops can produce hormones, enzymes, diagnostic drugs • But none have yet come to market • But pharma crops could contaminate food crops • Harming people or animals that eat them • •

Corn containing a pig vaccine spread through fields in Iowa and Nebraska, but did not make it into food • Pharmaceuticals should be produced with non-crop plants Problems with GM crops: safety • GM crops have proteins from other species – This could trigger an allergic reaction in people – Brazil nut genes in soybeans induced an allergic reaction for people allergic to the nuts • Antibiotic-resistant genes are put into organisms – Antibiotics could become ineffective • New combinations of genes could have unexpected health effects on consumers • The World Health Organization states that GM foods are not likely to present risks for human health Problems with GM crops: environmental concerns • Pests become resistant to the toxin in pest-resistant transgenic crops – The crop loses its advantage – Pests can become resistant to GM plants – Secondary pests: minor pests become major when competitor pests have been removed • Pollen for herbicide resistance or drought tolerance, etc. can spread to other plants – These plants can become “super” weeds – Glyphosphate resistance is now common in weeds Problems with GM crops: environmental effects • Ecological impacts of GM crops on nontargets: – Wind-carried pollen from Bt corn (resistant to the corn borer) kills beneficial insects • GM crops increase monocultures and decrease diversity, causing the loss of local varieties • GM animals can be more aggressive and outcompete, or hybridize with, native species • Do GM crops really reduce herbicide use? – 2001–2011, herbicide use increased 26% Problems of access in the developing world • In 2004, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization approved agricultural biotechnology – But also said its promise to alleviate hunger and improve farmer’s well-being was theory, not reality • GM crops have not delivered what was promised – Large, for-profit corporations developed the crops – GM crops were patented, and farmers had to buy the seeds each year – International trade agreements benefited large corporations at the cost of small farmers Some solutions to problems with GM crops • Small, noncommercial, and donor-funded labs are providing some GM seeds •

Researchers in China, India, and the Philippines are giving their results to developingworld farmers • “Seed piracy” is spreading GM seeds • An example of farmers’ experiences: – In India, Bt cotton crop harvests initially doubled, but then drastically decreased – These crops need more nutrients, fertilizer, and water, were prone to diseases, and were expensive – Seeds for local varieties had disappeared Controversy surrounds modified crops • Concerns and fear have generated controversy over genetically modified foods (GMOs) – Activists protest these “Frankenfoods” • Protests are strongest in Europe – Ireland has banned GM crops • The United States is far less concerned: 70% of processed food contains genetically modified substances – Some consumer groups want mandatory labeling―but U.S. policy does not require it • Since biotechnology is here to stay, we need policies about its use Policies overseeing biotechnology • In the United States, agencies regulate GM food crops – EPA, USDA, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) • Impact of Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm Sustainability in the United States (2010) stated: – Herbicide resistance in weed crops is a problem – Overall, GM crops have been a benefit • There is no evidence that these foods are unsafe – We need more research on environmental and safety issues What is the Cartegena Protocol? • UN Convention on Biodiversity’s conference (2000) – Dealt with trade in genetically modified organisms • Some said no one should be able to limit trade until it was proven to be harmful • Others felt that governments should be able to regulate trade if there were safety concerns • The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was reached – A lack of certainty should not prevent nations from making decisions about GMOs What did the Cartegena Protocol do? • It gives countries the right to prevent entry of genetically modified organisms – But they must base decisions on sound science • Shipments of GM food must be clearly labeled • The precautionary principle: if there are threats of serious or irreversible damage •

– Lack of scientific certainty is not a reason for failing to take measures to prevent damage • 147 nations (not the United States) have ratified the protocol Food distribution and trade • For centuries, the rule for food was self-sufficiency – Climate, blight, and wars interrupted food production, leading to famine and death – But disasters affected people locally―not far away • Trade moved goods from place to place • The Industrial Revolution intensified trade – Nations shipped foodstuffs around the world – The need for self-sufficiency decreased • Food has become globalized – World trade in agriculture: $1.75 trillion in 2013 Patterns in food trade • Agricultural systems supply more than that country’s internal food needs • Many nations (developing world) export special crops – Coffee, fruit, sugar, spices, palm oil, cocoa, nuts • Trade helps the exporter – Importers get out-of-season or specialty foods • Trade works only if the importing nation can pay – Cash is earned by exporting raw materials, fuel, manufactured goods, or special commodities Grain on the move • The most important foodstuff on the market? – Grain: corn, wheat, rice, barley, rye, sorghum – Oilseeds (canola, soybeans) • In 1935, only western Europe imported grain – Asia, Africa, Latin America were self-sufficient • North America is the major source of grains – The world’s breadbasket and meat market • The United States, Argentina, and Brazil export oilseeds – Europe and China import them for animal feeds Market manipulation often fails • In 2011, the government of Thailand bought rice at above-market value to support its farmers – Withholding it from the market to increase prices • Other nations increased rice production to sell – India, Vietnam, elsewhere • Thailand could not sell its stored rice and lost $4.4 billion – The farmers lost their stable source of income – The rice is degrading, and becoming inedible • Sometimes, though, it is wise to stockpile grain

Keeping a reserve • At no time in recent history have we run out of grain – Governments try to store 70 days worth of grain – Sometimes it is higher (120 days in the 1980s), sometimes it is lower (64 days in 2007) – In 2014, it was 91 days • Despite reserves, many people still lack food – They are simply too poor to buy it – Even if food production keeps up with population, some people will still be poor...