Exam 1 review sheet - Lecture notes Unit 1 PDF

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.Exam 1 Objectives 1. Differentiate between mechanistic vs. teleological reasoning (Chap 1)  Mechanistic (“in order to”)– focused on how the process proceeds * what we focus on o Oxygen binds to hemoglobin and in red blood cells o Describes how oxygen is transported  Teleological – focused on function and the why o Transfers blood to provide body with oxygen o Focuses on the significance of transferring blood

2. Movement across membranes (Chap 3 and 5) State the functions of the cell membrane. Relate to topics such as cell-cell communication  Separates cell from environment (compartmentalize the cell, ICF from ECF)  Selective barrier and allows certain molecules (regulates exchange  Isolates, regulates, structural support, communication with other cells Know characteristics of lipophilic vs. lipophobic molecules; also know categorization of specific molecules discussed  Lipophilic: lipid soluble, can pass via membrane by simple diffusion (steroids) o Small, nonpolar molecules  Lipophobic: repels lipids, is water soluble and requires a membrane transporter to pass cell membrane. o Ions, polar molecules Distinguish between the forms of movement across membranes—type of energy required? Transporter required?  Simple diffusion – go straight via the membrane (use kinetic energy)  Passive transport – kinetic energy of particle moving down the gradient, no use outside energy o Facilitated diffusion  Carrier mediated – opens one side, particle enters, close same side, open other side and release particle inside of the cell o Channel mediated: water filled pathway to inside the cell  Active transport: uses ATP as energy and uses a carrier protein Identify rationale for transport for specific molecules —e.g. study guide #1, discussion exercise, p. 7  Na is moving out of cell into the ECF, K moving inside of cell from the ECF normally  Antiporter: molecules moving in opposite direction  Symporter: 2 molecules moving in same direction *Draw and correctly label a transport graph 9. First graph shows saturation; second graph shows competition, therefore line 1. lower than graph Rate of monosacch transport

Rate of glucose transport

State the characteristics of carrier-mediated transport—relate to transport graph, also relate to receptors  Can be active or passive  Facilitated diffusion carriers: can be transporter proteins that help facilitate molecules diffusion (glucose example)  Pumps: can bind to more than one molecule to transport them (Na-K ATPase)  They catalyze transport process  Have specific substrate  Have conformational change

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Affected by things that affect enzymes (temp., pH, saturation, etc.) Subject to competition and saturation *saturation – happen when have limited # transporters and too many molecules. They reach maximum transport rate, all carriers filled with substrate

 Differentiate between 2o active transport, 1o active transport, and facilitated diffusion  Active transport involve moving a molecule against concentration gradient o 1° active transport: energy source from ATP o 2° active transport: use potential energy from concentration gradient of one molecule to push another molecule against its own concentration gradient  Facilitated diffusion: is mediated transport passive, and moving down concentration gradient *Place transporters on correct membrane for epithelial transport—e.g., #3-9, also discussion exercise p. 7 and class exercise, p. 8 Pg 8. Pg 4

ECF

Apica

BL

Epithelial cell

3. Osmolarity and tonicity (Chap 5) Recall numbers for volumes of distribution for 70 kg “physiology man”  60% of total body weight is total body of water = Men  Lbs/2.2 = kg  1/3 of TBW = ECF  2/3 of TBW = ICF  50% of total body weight is TBW = women Know which markers are for which body compartment  Total Body Water = deuterium oxide  ECF = inulin  Plasma = Evans blue Compare and contrast osmolarity and tonicity  Tonicity: o Takes into account the nature of the solute (whether is NP or Penetrating) o Describe the behavior of the cell in a specific solution o Always describe the solution o No units: used for comparative terms

o Always describing cell and solution Osmolarity: o Osmoles/liters = osmolarity o Actually has units o Describe # of solutes particles dissolved in volume of solution o Can compare 2 solutions to each other Know standard penetrating vs. non-penetrating solutes  NP: NaCl, proteins  Penetrating: Urea, glucose Work mathematically-based problems S = VC V = S/C C=S/V *know when have added a solution with P and NP solutes and the solution concentration is higher than inside the cell but the cell’s NP is higher than the solutions NP, know that the water will move out of the cell first, then the penetrating solutes enter the cell, then the water goes back into the cell to balance out the concentration of the cell to solution o Quantitative chart probs, (and related questions) such as Osm/Ton class exercise p. 12, o #14, 15-23 in study guide o Disc. Ex (p. 22) #2-5 o Qualitative charts like #10, 11 o Disc Ex #6 o RBC problems, #7, 8, 24-25 o Disc Ex #7-8 o Solutions/dilutions e.g. #1-5 Recall standard IV solutions: mOsM of each; tonicity of each Disc Ex p. 22 #1  Isotonic solutions o Normal saline (0.9% saline aka 9grams/0.1L) = Osmolarity = 300 osM o D5 Normal saline (5% Dextrose and 0.9% saline) = 578 osM (300+278)  Hypotonic solutions (cell swells) o D5 water (5% dextrose in water aka 5g/0.1L or 5g/1L) = 278 osM *not used for volume/osmolarity correction o ½ Normal saline (0.45% saline) = 300/2 = 150osM o D5 ½ normal saline (5% Dextrose and 0.45% saline) = 278+150 = 428 osM *use if patient dehydrated due to vomiting, dextrose can be used to provide energy *Understand application of IV solutions. #14b Osm/Ton Discussion Ex (p. 23) #4 *Steps for when adding penetrating and penetrating solutions to ECF 1. Calculate the starting values: Put starting total volume and total concentration 1/3 TBW is ECF and 2/3 TBW is ICF and concentration same as total for both Calculate solutes via S = C x V 2. Next: Add added volume to TBW first. Add added NP solutes to total solutes and the NP solutes (same amount) to ECF only, ICF solutes stays the same (make sure in osmoles, so need to convert if needed) Then calculate new concentration for total column (that will be the same concentration for ICF and ECF) Use concentration to calculate the volume of ECCF and ICF for chart 2 3. Now for the Penetrating, the 3rd chart Volumes remain same for chart 3 Add amount of added solute to total solute amount with NP accounted for Use V and S to calculate total concentration (calculated concentration be same for ECF and ICF) Then use concentration and volumes to calculate the ECF and ICF solute amount 

a. b. c. a. b. c. d. a. b. c. d.

4. Homeostasis (chap 6, also of chap 1, see Lecture/Reading Schedule) Know types of communication  Paracrine: cell targets local cells  Endocrine: cell targets a distant cell via blood stream  Autocrine: cell released signal targets itself  Direct signaling across gap junctions: cell targets a cell connected by gap junctions Correctly define homeostatic reflex  A process that is designed to keep the system at/near a set point so regulated variable stay stable Differentiate between two major types of control: local vs. systemic/reflex  Local control: simplest type of control o Local cell sense change in vicinity and respond via chemical release o Affected area only place that change occurred  Reflex control = rep. any long-distance pathway using NS and endocrine system Distinguish between types of receptors: Intracellular vs. membrane receptors (4 types)  Intracellular: a lipophilic molecule diffuses via the membrane and enters the cell o Then attaches to the receptor that’s in the cytosol/nucleus of the cell o Controls transcription process usually  Membrane receptors: o Receptor-Channel- ligand binding opens/closes the channel o Receptor-enzyme – ligand binding to a receptor enzyme activates an intracellular enzyme o G protein-coupled receptor – ligand binding to a G-protein coupled receptor opens an ion channel or alters enzyme activity o Integrin receptor: ligand binding to integrin receptors alters cytoskeleton Identify components of specific reflex pathways  Be able to apply simple neuro or endo reflex o Neural reflex:  Stimulus  sensory receptor sensory neuron CNS (integrating center) efferent neuron  target tissue  response  Ex: knee jerk reflex o Simple endo reflex  Stimulus endocrine cell (integrating center)  release of hormones into BV  reach target tissue (effector)  response  Ex: insulin release because glucose in BV increases  Ex: low Ca2+ in BV, parathyroid release hormone to bones to break down bone and release calcium into BV and tell kidneys to reabsorb calcium from urine  Be able to recognize specific neuroendocrine pathways e.g. #2 (under Communication) o Neuroendocrine pathways:  Neurohormone:  Complex Neuroendocrine reflexes 1. Stimulusreceptor on sensory neuronneurotransmitters to CNS (integrating center)  release neurotransmitters to endocrine cell  release of hormones into BV target tissue (effector) response a. Insulin secreted because of brain signal: eat a meal, sensory neuron in GI tract tell CNS to send signal pancreas that release insulin, in BV to target tissue 2. stimulus receptor on sensory neuron neurotransmitters to CNS (integrating center)  CNS release neurohormones into BV to endocrine cell  endocrine cell release hormone into BV  to target tissue  response a. secretion of growth hormone

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3. stimulus receptor on sensory neuron neurotransmitters to CNS (integrating center)  CNS release neurohormones into BV to endocrine cell  endocrine cell release hormone into BV  to affect another endocrine cell  causing it to release another hormone to affect another endocrine cell *endocrine cells that release a hormone that will cause the release of another hormone. Hormones called = trophic hormones a. ex: hormones release by Ant. Pit. Distinguish between Negative/positive feedback & feedforward (all types of reflex pathways) o Negative feedback: is Homeostatic  A pathway that the response opposes or remove the signal  Stabilizes the regulated variable and helps system maintain homeostasis  Can restore the normal state but can’t prevent the initial disturbance o Positive feedback: not homeostatic  Reinforces stimulus  The response sends the regulated variable even farther from normal value  Requires outside intervention to stop the loop o Feedforward – an anticipatory response that start a response loop in anticipation of a change that is about to occur Not tested: details re: types of membrane receptors, specific 2o messenger pathways

5. Endocrine (chap 7) Compare and contrast Steroid vs. peptide hormones vs. amines e.g. (p. 25) #3  Steroid hormones: o Made from cholesterol and lipophilic o Made in the adrenal cortex (outskirts of adrenal gland) and gonads o Ex: estrogens, androgens, cortisol o Exit host cell via simple diffusion o Bound to carrier protein when transported in blood o Receptor is in the cell: cytosol or nucleus  Peptide hormones: o Made of linked amino acids o These are most abundant hormone, lipophobic o Hormones not made in the adrenal cortex, gonads, thyroid gland adrenal medulla are peptide hormones o Made in RER and released and dissolved in Blood, attaches to target and causes a fast response o Releases from cell via exocytosis o Dissolves in blood when travelling in BV o Binds to membrane receptor, can’t enter cell o Ex: insulin  Amine hormones: o Modified single amino acids (either tryptophan or tyrosine) o Made in the medulla adrenal gland (inside of gland), thyroid gland, pineal glands (melatonin) o Ex: T4 and T3 hormones, norepinephrine and epinephrine Give definitions of the three types of hormone interactions, e.g., #4, 5  Synergism: o Effect 2 or more hormones on same parameter is greater than additive o The combined effect of the two hormones is greater than the sum if the effects of the two hormones  Ex: epinephrine: increase blood glucose by 5

 Glucagon increase by 10  Epinephrine and glucose increase blood glucose by 22 mg/100mL  Permissiveness o One hormone is needed for another to exert its full effect. The first hormone has no direct on parameter (the first hormone no direct effect on parameter, is needed to except second hormone ‘s normal effect)  Ex: GH and T4, GH can cause growth, but only partial, with T4, can cause full growth of body  Antagonism: o 2 hormones that have opposing effects (can directly oppose or indirectly oppose each other)  Ex: glucagon and insulin  Extra info: o Long-loop interaction  The last hormone in pathway feedback to suppress secretion of its trophic hormone o Short-loop interaction  Pituitary hormones feedback to reduce secretion by the hypothalamus Think of possible cellular mechanisms for these interactions *A type of mechanism that happens at cellular level  Peptides: no enter cell, bind to membrane receptor: to big go via channels and polar so no simple diffusion. o Bind to membrane receptor and cause signal cascade  Steroids: have intracellular receptors and use a protein carrier when travelling in the blood o Bind to nucleus and have effect on gene expression  Hormones can work on total separate pathways  Have cross talk between secondary messenger pathway o Parallel action – upregulating calcium in the cell have same effect as depolarization o Convergent actions – phosphorylating same protein o Antagonistic actions – one up regulating cAMP and another down regulating cAMP  Regulate synthesis/release of hormone or receptor *Know hormones associated with posterior pituitary and basic pathway/effect for each  Oxytocin and vasopressin (aka ADH-antidiuretic hormone) these are neurohormones  Oxytocin – peptide hormone o Cause uterine and breast smooth muscle to contract o Oxytocin pathway:  Made in the hypothalamus and stored in Pos. Pit  stimulus cause release from Pos. Pit- effector is uterus or breast muscle (effector)  response  Antidiuretic hormone (aka vasopressin) peptide hormone o regulates water reabsorption in kidneys o controls plasma volume to control BP o Pathway:  Made in the hypothalamus and stored in Pos. Pit  stimulus cause release from Pos. Pit  target is Kidneys (effector)  response Know all hormones associated with Hypothalamic/Ant. Pit control axis & basic effect for each  6 total released from anterior pituitary: PT FLAG o Have both release and stimulating hormones from hypothalamus  Prolactin (cause breast lactation) peptide hormone  GH (stimulates growth and cell reproduction) peptide hormone o Are trophic hormones: target tissue are other endocrine organs  TSH - cause release of T4 /T3 (cause fat mobilization, increase metabolism) peptide hormone

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FSH (women: cause growth of ovarian follicles; men: cause sperm production) peptide hormone  LH (women: cause egg release; men: cause production of testosterone) peptide hormone  ACTH (stimulate and release cortisol from adrenal cortex) peptide hormone *dopamine, TRH, GHRH, CRH, GnRH, somatostatin are neurohormones

*Identify integrating centers, efferents, etc. in these pathways  Anterior Pituitary: (is considered a endocrine cell) o hypothalamus is integrating center #1,  hormone it release in efferent #1 o anterior pituitary is integrating center #2  hormone it releases is efferent #2 o then would go to endocrine gland being the integrating center #3  and the hormone it releases would be efferent #3  Posterior pituitary: no integrating center?, from hypothalamus/pos. pit to effector via neurohormones, is neural tissue Distinguish between primary vs. secondary pathologies, e.g. #10-11, 15, Disc.Ex. pp. 31 #7  Primary pathology: if there is a excess or deficiency in the last endocrine gland in a reflex o There a problem with thyroid gland that causes excessive release of T3/T4  Secondary: dysfunction in one of tissue making a trophic hormone o Ex: damage in pituitary and cause under release of TSH, causing it to affect the hormone release from thyroid gland

What to Expect: This is based on exam 1 from previous semesters, and is subject to small changes

5-5.5 pages: Page 1-2—multiple choice (MMC) and other short answer Pages 3-6—Case studies—mostly short answer, some MMC 1) Endocrine case study that incorporates: Hypothalamic-pituitary control 1o vs 2o disorders steroid vs. peptide Reflex pathways hormone interactions 2) Epithelial transport case study—incorporates membrane transport and transport graphs 3) Osmolarity-tonicity case study...