Exam 3 - Lecture notes section 3 PDF

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Attachment and love (chp. 11) A. Attraction 1. “The girl next door” a) Mere-exposure effect: repeated exposure to any stimulus, including a person leads to greater liking for that stimulus (1) Someone we have class with, live next door to, etc. 2. Birds of a feather: opposites do not attract, we like people who are similar to us a) Homophily: tendency to have contact with people who are of equal social status (1) Same level of education, institutions attended, etc. (2) Greatest homophily is race, then education and age (3) Couples least likely to share same religion b) Similarity in attitudes is important 3. Physical attractiveness a) We are most attracted to good-looking people (1) Even shown in preschoolers, make friends with more attractive people b) Gender difference (1) Men count physical appearance in evaluating women more than women do for men c) Limitations (1) Attraction research is mostly about first impressions (2) But, powerful in hookup culture 4. Interpersonal marketplace a) Matching phenomenon: tendency for men and women to chose as partners people who match them in terms of attitude, intelligence and attractiveness (1) Chose based on “social worth” (a) Men’s worth: success (b) Women’s worth: looks (2) Experiment: (Brynne) (a) Participants fill out questionnaire on attitudes about multiple issues (b) Participants shown questionnaire filled out by another person (i) Group 1: similar (ii) Group 2: different (c) Participants rate how much they like other person (d) Results: people like person whose attitudes are similar to theirs b) Attractiveness in high school led to better treatment by teachers→ more success in future 5. From the laboratory to real life a) Perceived similarity: extent to which person believes his/her partner is

similar on important characteristics (1) Actual and perceived similarity are associated with interpersonal attraction 6. Attraction online a) Four social forces at work that contributes to growth of this (1) Growing proportion of population is single (2) Career and time pressures people to seek more efficient ways to look (3) Single people are highly mobile, increasing difficulty of meeting someone (4) Workplace romance is less acceptable due to concerns about sexual harassment b) Advantage: focus on attitudes, interests, etc. not influenced by attraction always. c) Disadvantage: lack of knowledge about person d) How do websites match people (1) Eharmony.com: similarity in attitudes, values, personality (2) Chemistry.com: Dr. Helen Fisher (sociobiologist), chemistry, “spark” leads to attraction (3) Perfectmatch.com: Dr. Pepper Schwartz, (a) Similarity in romantic impulsivity, personal energy outlook, personality (b) Dissimilarity in flexibility, emotionality, self-nurturing style, decision-making style (c) Site closed down 7. Theories of attraction a) Byrne's law of attraction: our attraction to another person is proportionate to the number of reinforcements that person gives us relative to the total number of reinforcements plus punishments the person gives us (1) More reinforcements fewer punishments (2) Practical implications→ spend time having fun together b) Sexual strategies theory (Buss) (evolutionary theory): physical attraction is a sign of fertility (1) Men are attracted to younger women because they are more fertile (2) Women are attracted to healthy men/ men who are willing and able to contribute resources to them and their children (3) Critical feature of face is symmetry (a) Fluctuating asymmetry: asymmetry of bilateral features that are on average symmetrical in the population (i) Reflect developmental instability (4) More important theory in poorer countries: greater gender differences

B. Intimacy 1. 3 part definition a) Commitment b) Feelings of closeness (emotional and cognitive), trust c) Self-disclosure: telling personal things about yourself, promotes a sense of intimacy and reciprocation (1) Makes us like and trust person more (2) Imitation may occur (a) Norms of equity (3) Positive correlation with relationship satisfaction and promotes intimacy 2. Measuring intimacy a) Scale to measure (PAIR inventory) (1) “My partner listens to me when I need someone to talk to” (2) “How often do you feel close to your partner” C. Theories of love 1. Kinsey said we couldn’t measure it, but now we can 2. Triangular theory of love (Sternberg) a) Intimacy: emotional component (1) Not sex b) Passion: motivation/drive component. Physical attraction, drive for sexual expression c) Decision/commitment: cognitive component (1) Short term: realizing I love you (2) Long term: moving in together, engagement d) All three must be translated into action e) Evidence: questionnaire 3. Attachment theory of love a) Result of childhood experiences of attachment (Bowlby) (1) Adults bring to any relationship their own personal history of love and attachment (2) Conflict may be caused by mismatch of attachment styles (3) Provides some explanation for jealousy (anxious/ambivalent) b) 3 categories (1) Secure: closeness is easy/natural for them (2) Avoidant: closeness is difficult for them (3) Anxious/ambivalent: insecure, desperately want closeness, partner pulls away because they scare them away 4. Two component theory a) Physiological arousal b) Cognitive label (love) c) Ex: your heart is pounding, do you label as sexual arousal or exam? d) Misattribution of arousal: when a person in a stage of physiological arousal attributes these feelings to attraction/love of person present

(1) Ex: scary bridge study 5. Love as a story a) Story of what love should be like, including characters a plot and a theme (1) Falling in love occurs when you meet someone with whom you can create a relationship that fits your love story 6. Passionate vs. companionate love a) Passionate: intense, physiological arousal, all consuming, lasts 6-30 months (1) dopamine→ euphoria b) Companionate: deep attachment, commitment following (1) oxytocin→ calm pleasure

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D. Research on love 1. Cross cultural research a) Individualistic: individual goals, Ex: USA b) Collectivist: group goals, self defined by group membership, Ex: Japan c) Would you marry someone you didn’t love? (1) Individualistic: decision made by individual, 86% said no (2) Collectivist: arranged marriages for good of family, wisdom of parent, 34% said no Gender and sexuality (chp. 12) A. Gender roles and stereotypes 1. Terms a) Gender binary: classification of people into two categories: male or female (1) Alternative: nonbinary/ trans/ gender queer b) Gender role: set of culturally defined norms that define how people of one gender ought to behave c) Stereotype: generalization about a group of people that distinguishes those people from others 2. Gender roles and Ethnicity a) Intersectionality: considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, difference and disadvantage (1) Intersection of gender and identity/ race and social class (2) Woman is not homogenous→ varies in ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc. 3. Socialization: ways in which society conveys to the individual its norms or expectations for their behavior a) Especially in childhood: rewarded/punished for certain behaviors b) Gender socialization due to peers, parents and media B. Psychological gender differences 1. Males and females differ in aggressiveness and communication styles a) Males more aggressive b) Adolescent females self disclose more than adolescent males c) Women better at “decoding nonverbal cues”: reading body language

C. Gender differences in sexuality 1. Masturbation a) d=.53 → moderate/high dif b) Kinsey: 92% males, 58% females c) More prevalent in males 2. Attitudes about casual sex a) d=.45 b) Men are more approving 3. Use of pornography a) d=.63 → moderate/high dif b) Men report using it more 4. Arousal to erotica a) Usually produced for a male audience b) Most erotic material is produced by men c) Women more aroused by romance, men more aroused by “raw sex” d) Women and men similar levels of physical arousal to erotica, but men report it more 5. Orgasm consistency a) NSHB=91% men, 64% women had an orgasm during most recent sexual encounter b) Men are more consistent in orgasms during sex 6. Sex drive a) Times/day think about it sex→students (1) Male -19, female -10 b) Men have higher sex drive D. Gender similarities 1. Physiology of sex response→ vasocongestion/myotonia 2. Attitudes about masturbation (d=.002) 3. Attitudes about extramarital sex (d=.01) E. Why the differences 1. Bogus pipeline method: fill out questionnaires about sexual attitudes and behaviors a) Group 1: bogus pipeline condition, fake polygraph but told it could detect lies b) Group 2: anonymous condition, filled out questionnaire anonymously and put in locked box c) Group 3: exposure threat, handed answers directly to experimenter and filled out answers with experimenter present d) Outcome: number of sex partners reported (1) In exposure threat group, women reported fewer partners than men (2) In bogus pipeline, women reported same amount as men 2. What causes the differences? a) Biology: anatomy and hormones

(1) Male anatomy: open and accessible (2) Males have more testosterone b) Cultural factors: gender roles, double standard, body image issues c) Pregnancy scares: 19% teens used no contraception the last time they had sex d) Women not masturbating e) Ineffective stimulation of women in heterosexual interaction 3. Woman “performing” sex a) Performance: like an actor in a play (1) Not authentically you (2) Ex: women kissing other women at parties, faking orgasm F. Beyond the young adults 1. Helen Singer Kaplan’s model a) Differences in sexuality or males/females (1) Teenage male: very intense, almost exclusively genital (2) 30 year old male: still highly interested in sex (not so urgently), satisfied with fewer orgasms (3) 50 year old male: typically satisfied with two orgasms a week, focus not completely genital (4) Teenage female: orgasmic response is slow and inconsistent (5) 30 year old female: sexual response is quicker and more intense, orgasm consistently 2. Body-centered sex (Reiss): emphasis on physical pleasure a) Adolescent men, later on for women 3. Person-centered sex (Reiss): emphasis on relationship and emotions a) Adolescent women, later on for men 4. Heimann study a) Male vs. female arousal to erotic material b) Groups (1) Audio of erotic (2) Audio of romantic (3) Audio of erotic and romantic (4) Control c) Measures: self-reports and physiological measures (penile strain gauge and photoplethysmograph) d) Results (1) Explicit sex (erotic and erotic+romantic) most arousing to both male and female (2) Both male and females find the female-initiated/ female-centered scenes more arousing (a) Gender similarities (3) Women are sometimes not aware of arousal (a) Non concordance between psychological and physiological

5. Zilbergeld: the new male sexuality a) Media teach a fantasy model of sex b) “It’s 2 ft long, hard as steel, always ready and will knock your socks off” (1) Creates unrealistic expectations and performance pressures on men G. Transgender 1. Assigned gender vs. gender identity vs. gender expression a) Assigned gender: gender assigned at birth based on genitals (1) AFAB, AMAB b) Gender identity: internal sense of gender c) Gender expression: external presentation of gender 2. CIS gender: gender identity is the same as gender assigned at birth. a) Internal sense matches gendered expectations assigned at birth b) Sense of gender identity develop at 2-4 c) Some go through procedure to change appearance (genitals/hormones feeling of body dysmorphia) (1) Also may go by different names d) CIS normative: assumes gender equals gender assigned at birth (1) Cis normative binary: as a norm 3. Transgender: broad range of individuals whose gender identity does not match their gender assigned at birth a) Identity ≠ expression b) Transsexual: belief that they were born with the body of the other gender (1) Seek gender reassignment procedures (2) Male-to-female transsexual: male gender, female identity (3) Female-to-male transsexual: female gender, male identity c) Gender dysphoria: psychological distress about a mismatch between a person’s gender identity and natal gender d) Experience of trans people (1) Transphobia: a strong, irrational fear of trans people (2) Anti-trans prejudice: negative attitudes and behaviors towards trans individuals 4. Genderqueer/Non-binary a) Genderqueer: neither man nor woman, a combination b) Non-binary: beyond the binary of man/woman → fall under transgender umbrella 5. Sexual Orientation: terminology for attraction a) Gynephilic - attracted to females/femininity b) Androphilic - attracted to males/masculinity c) Trans does not change sexual orientation/attraction, just identity 6. Sexual Identity: one’s identity as homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual, queer, etc. 7. Queer: outside the norm (norm= cis/heteronormative) a) Benefits of queer (1) Inclusive because it’s vague

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(2) Identity without profiling yourself (3) Doesn’t include “sexual” b) Prevalence (1) 0.6% in the US (probably an underestimate) (2) Now available label to place on an experience (3) 0.3% estimate in 2009: younger adults are more likely to be trans (4) 0.5-1.0% in western societies (5) About 35% of trans are non-binary Gender Dysphoria a) DSM term: unhappiness, discontent with one’s assigned gender b) Developmentally, often appears in childhood (1) 20% of childhood cases persist to adolescence and adulthood c) Controversy: does the existence of any diagnostic label imply pathology? (1) Yes: do away with diagnosis, like “homosexuality” was removed from DSM-5 (2) No: necessary to gain insurance coverage for treatments Gender Euphoria a) Community term: happiness, sense of contentment with chosen gender b) Being trans isn’t about dysphoria as much as it is about euphoria Pubertal Suppression a) Dilemma: 10-year-old boy AFAB is about to go through puberty (1) Delay puberty (menstruation/breast develop/etc.) b) Drug that interferes with HPG feedback loop and the hormones that trigger puberty (1) Buys time: can make a better decision at age 15 about physical transition (2) Reversible (3) Effective for positive psychology (4) Controversy: consent/gatekeeping (a) Gatekeeping: information or access to something is filtered or limited, in this case by the medial community (i) Gender dysphoria diagnosis necessary for treatment Transition a) Medical (1) Medical gender affirmation procedure, NOT sex change (a) Counseling/psychiatric evaluation (b) Hormone therapy (HRT) (i) Pubertal suppression (ii) Endogenous or exogenous, will lead to changes (iii) Estrogen and testosterone (iv) Hormones for everyone: menopause, menstruation, contraception, transition, PCOS, etc.

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b) Surgery (1) Chest surgery (breast removal) (2) Genital surgery MTF (a) Penectomy (removal of penis) (b) Orchiectomy (removal of testes) (c) Vaginoplasty (creation of vagina) (d) Clitoroplasty (creation of clit) (e) Vulvoplasty (creation of female-appearing vulva) (3) Genital surgery FTM (a) Hysterectomy (removal of uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries) (b) Metoidioplasty or phalloplasty (creation of penis and artificial testes) 12. Why not transition? gatekeeping, expensive, etc. Instead… a) Voice and communication therapy: help the person speak in the range typical for their gender identity and communicate nonverbally in ways that match their gender identity b) Supportive therapy and peer support to reduce stress (for family too) c) For natal males, facial hair removal d) Gender-confirming therapy e) Do NOT double bind (1) Can (and most likely will) damage your body 13. Social Gender Affirmation Pronouns a) Traditional - he/she b) Non-binary - they 14. Passing: notion that transgenders need to look like stereotypical images or men and women a) Passing privilege: advantages associated with fitting gender norms 15. Mental Health a) More mental health problems than cisgenders (eg. suicide rates) (1) Trans erasure (2) Lack of representation (3) Discrimination/prejudice (4) Lack of social support Sexual orientation (chp. 13) A. Attitudes towards gays and lesbians 1. Attitude of adult Americans from 1973 to 2012 a) Great change in attitudes 2. Homophobia: strong, irrational fear of homosexuals (negative attitudes and reactions to homosexuals) a) Antigay prejudice: negative attitudes and behaviors towards gays and lesbians 3. Hate crimes: 14% of LGBs have been assaulted with weapon on account of their sexual orientation

a) Ex: Matthew Shepard 4. Heteronormativity: belief that heterosexuality is the norm and that all people are or should be heterosexual 5. Heterosexism: belief that everyone is heterosexual and that heterosexuality is the norm; homosexuality is denigrated 6. Gays and lesbians as a minority group a) Discrimination in wage gaps, jobs, etc. B. Life experiences of LGBs 1. Covert vs. overt a) Covert: in the closet (1) May be heterosexually married, have children and be a respected professional in community b) Overt: out of the closet (1) May live in an LGB community 2. Coming out: the process of acknowledging to oneself, and then to others, that one is gay or lesbian 3. Sexual fluidity: changes over time in sexual attractions, identity or behaviors which can occur with people in their twenties, thirties or later 4. Gay and lesbian relationships a) No differences between lesbian, gay and heterosexual couples on any interaction measures (1) Similarity in satisfactions, loves, joys and conflict C. Gay families 1. Children growing up in gay or lesbian households 2. How do kids get into this situation? (adoption, surrogates, artificial insemination, children from previous marriages) 3. Potential worries, court cases, custody a) Will child grow up to be LGB? b) Will child be well adjusted? c) Difficulty with peers? (teasing) 4. Data → no diferences D. Gay Activism 1. Began with the Stonewall Protests (1969) a) Stonewall: gay bar in Greenwich, NY 2. National LGBTQ Task Force 3. Lambda Legal: collects money, prosecutes civil rights cases E. How many people are gay, straight or bi? 1. Kinsey: 37% men, 13% women engaged in sex to orgasm at least one time with someone of their own sex (behavior) a) Overestimates because of Kinsey’s sampling 2. Depends on how you define “gay” or “straight” a) Sex vs. gender and gender identity vs. sexual orientation (1) Sexual orientation has 3 components: behavior, attraction, identity

b) Sexual identity: self-label as heterosexual, homosexual, queer, etc. 3. 90% of males and females are exclusively heterosexual, 10% have had at least one same gender experience, 2% of men and 1% of women are exclusively homosexual 4. The Kinsey Scale - two ways of conceptualizing sexual orientation a) Sexual orientation on a continuum (0-6) (1) 0=exclusive hetero, 6=exclusive homo, 3=equal F. Sexual orientation and mental health 1. Is homosexuality right or wrong? Is homosexuality a normal form of adjustment? 2. Medical model: a theoretical model in psychology and psychiatry in which mental problems (homosexuality) are thought of as sickness or mental illness 3. Research evidence a) Clinical studies (1) Therapists looked for disturbances in their current adjustment/ past experiences/ home life (a) Provided evidence that they were poorly adjusted (b) Not good evidence b) Control group studies (1) Compared homosexuals to heterosexuals rather than not having control group (a) Compared homo in therapy to hetero not in therapy (i) Research design flaws c) Non-patient research (1) Compared homosexuals to heterosexuals (none in therapy) (a) Found homos just as well adjusted as hetero (2) American Psychiatric Association (1973), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) (a) Removed “homosexuality” as a diagnostic category d) Population studies (1) LGB’s have somewhat higher rates of depression (2) Suicide attempts (a) 9.1% LGB adolescents, 3.1% straight adolescents (b) More exposure to prejudice and violence (c) Lack of support from family and friends 4. Conversion therapy, reparative therapy a) Convert gay→straight (change sexual orientation) through therapy or religious groups: Pray the Gay Away b) Bottom line: it doesn't work (1) Am...