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Chapter 10 1. Terms:  Phonology: sound system  Phonemes: basic units of sound that can change meaning of a word.  Morphology: units of meaning in a word  Semantics: meaning  Syntax: sentences from words (grammar)  Pragmatics: social conventions  Prosody: “music” of sounds – pitch, intonation. 2. Describe the developmental process of language acquisition, including pre-speech sounds, the first word, the two-word stage, and later grammatical developments such as active/passive voice.  Pre-speech sounds: - Ability to distinguish /p/ versus /b/ sounds around 2 months - Recognition/perception of phonemes in their own/other language - Word segmentation: ability to detect a target word in a stream of speech – 7 months - Cooing: repeating a vowel-like sounds (6-8 weeks) - Babbling: repeating consonant-vowel combinations such as “baba” or “dadada” (3-4 months) - Comprehension ahead of production: ten months old can comprehend about 50 words but do not yet produce any o these. - Similarities: cross-cultural, sign language  First word - Holophrases: single-word utterance used by an infant that represents an entire sentence’s worth of meaning. - Nouns - Joint attention/gestures: social eye gaze – two people looking at the same thing. - Syntactic bootstrapping: use the syntax of a sentence – where a word is placed in a sentence to determine the meaning of the word. - Overextension: using a word to refer to too wide a range of objects or events (ex: when a 2 year old calls all furry, 4 legged animals as “doggie”. - Underextension: when a child initially uses the word doggie to refer only to the family pet. - Vocabulary spurt: around 18 months, when the infant has learned 30-50 words, their pace of word learning quickens dramatically. - Fast mapping: allows children to determine the object or other referent of a word and then remember this for future encounters with the word  Two word stage - Begins at 18-24 months - Telegraphic speech: early sentences that consist primarily of content words and omit the less meaningful parts of speech such as articles, prepositions, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs. - Functional grammar: emphasizes semantic relationships among words meaning/functions expressed  Later developments: - Overregularizations (wug study): overapplying the rules to cases in which the proper form is irregular. - Transformational language: rules of syntax - Learn irregular verbs, noun first. Later learn rules, over apply rules. - Asking questions: intonation, “wh” words, inverting word order - Active/passive voice: passive means when the first noun is receiving the action.

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Children become less cognitively egocentric, they are more able to take the perspective of their listeners - Metalinguistic awareness, or knowledge of language as a system. Children understand the concept of words and can define words – semantics. - Decontextualized language Explain the learning theory perspective for language acquisition, as well as criticisms of this perspective.  Focuses on environment  Learning through reinforcement and imitation  Criticisms: accounts for phonology and semantics. How is syntax acquired? - Creativity, some kids create their own words. - Imitations aren’t exact - Orderly and little effort. Describe language acquisition according to Chomsky’s nativist perspective, and discuss whether or not language acquisition is unique to humans.  Chomsky: transformational grammar  Universal grammar: deep structure/surface structure  LAD: language acquisition device  Uniquely human What are the cognitive (Piaget) and interactionist (Vygotsky) perspectives regarding language acquisition?  Piaget: representational ability & language  Vygotsky: language contributes to cognitive/social development (zone of proximal development)  Turn taking the “dance” of language  Mere exposure not enough, but wide cross-cultural variation  Promoting language acquisition: reading to children Discuss evidence for a critical/sensitive period for language acquisition as well as research related to language acquisition in children who are deaf.  Brain areas related to language: - Left hemispheres: speech - Right hemisphere: prosody - Brocca’s and Wernicke’s areas  Language Universals: acquisition, nature of language  POTS: poverty of stimulus – complex structure, limited input  Ease of acquisition  Mutant Gene: FOXP2  Case of genie Describe the neurobiology of language as well as research related to bilingualism.  Children who are bilingual have better metanlinguistic skills than nonbilingual.  Ongoing exposure to multiple languages alters the neural connections in the brain. Children who are regularly exposed to multiple languages acquire them as easy as those who are not.  Children are also able to do multiple things at once and are more skilled at ignoring irrelevant information and focusing.  Constant juggling of two languages that bilinguals must perform strengthens the higher level executive control components of the cognitive system. Explain mastery motivation, and discuss the pros and cons for special stimulation (early education) during the preschool years.  Mastery motivation in infants: a strive for mastery or competence. Appears to be inborn and universal. Correlation with success later in life.  Pros: - When academics and play are balanced it increases cognitive growth, and it’s a smoother transition to kindergarten.  Cons:

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Strong academic orientation Does not allow children to be children. Children may lose their self-initiative and intrinsic motivation to learn. Also educational videos are not valuable and may be detrimental. - Less motivation, less creative and more anxious testing.  It also seems higher when parents provide sensory stimulation designed to arouse and amuse their babies.  Fixed mindset (ability fixed) vs. growth mindset  Positive effects on later school achievement are especially likely if the preschool experience not only stimulates children’s cognitive growth but also provides some sort of programming for parents and includes follow-up during elementary school 9. Discuss why some children have a learned helplessness orientation rather than a mastery orientation towards achievement situations, and describe research related to mastery goals versus performance goals.  Mastery goals: in achievement situations, aiming to learn new things in order to learn or improve ability. - Children have a growth mindset, self-regulated learning and feelings of pride and satisfaction.  Performance goals: attempt to prove their ability rather than improve it.  high/low ability, learning/performance goal research  Achievement motivation: - Fixed mindset: children tend to believe that what they have is fixed or static. - Growth mindset: they believe that abilities and talent are not fixed but are malleable.  Parents encourage learning: Parents can then strengthen their children’s achievement motivation by stressing and reinforcing the process of learning rather than emphasizing the product  Paying for grades, attendance, reading research 10. Explain the process of learning to read, research related to teaching reading, and factors distinguishing skilled and unskilled readers.  Alphabetic principle: - Prealphabetic phase: children memorize selected visual cues to remember words. - Partial alphabetic phase: children learn the shapes and sounds of letters - Full alphabetic phase: children make complete connections between written letters and their corresponding sounds. By using phonological awareness: sensitivity to the sounds system of language that enables them to segment spoken words into sounds or phonemes. - Consolidated alphabetic phase: children are able to group letters that regularly occur together into a unit.  Research related to reading: - Emergent literacy: developmental precursors of reading skills in young children. Includes knowledge, skills and attitudes. - Children benefit from rhyming, repeating and defining words.  2 approaches to teaching reading: - Phonics (code-oriented) = teaches children to analyze words into their component sounds. Letter-sound correspondence, strongly supported. - Whole language = reading for meaning, clues context - Dyslexia = programs to help hard to distinguish sounds  Skilled readers: - Solid understanding of alphabetic principle (letters associated with phonemes, they can see letter b and know sound that it represents). - Higher phonological awareness - Hit all of words - Don use context to help with identification - Use phonology to identify words  Unskilled:

- Skip words or parts of words - Trouble with phonology - Dyslexia 11. Discuss characteristics of effective schools, research related to declining achievement during adolescence, cross-cultural research related to math performance, and how adolescent employment affects school performance.  Teachers: - Emphasize academics, effective teachers (advancement of students) - Effective on-the spot disciplining - Task-oriented, comfortable atmosphere  Students - Higher IQ scores - Economically advantaged - High achieving parents  Task-oriented, comfortable atmosphere.  Research related to declining achievement during adolescence: - Discouraged if they focus on their weaknesses, decline in achievement motivation; frustrated by the emphasis on grades; abandon learning goals in favor of performance goals-drop as students move through middle school and high school; but students of different backgrounds ay loose motivation for different reasons.  Cross-cultural research related to math performance - Asian schools typically spend more time on academics and they are backed up by parents who place a high priority on education, encouraging study time and homework. Peer groups also support studying and friends often get together to study, as opposed to getting together to "hang out."  How adolescent employment affects school performance. - Working during high school can foster independence from parents and knowledge of how work places operate. But students who work during high school are often disengaged from school and do not perform as well academically as those who do not work or work just a few hours. 12. Explain research-tying education in adolescence to successful adulthood as well as adults’ experiences related to language, achievement motivation, and continuing education.  Students with good grades more likely to go to college and have higher career aspirations and advancement-Family, school and peer influences-Usually combo of two or more factors making a student at risk for failure-Hispanics lowest; whites highest.  Level of achievement carries over from adolescence into adulthood. There may be some decline in achievement motivation among women who set aside career goals to raise children, but career goals reemerge as their children age, especially among women with higher levels of education.  Adults increasingly are seeking continued educational opportunities for both personal and work-related reasons. Chapter 11 1. Describe personality development from the perspectives of psychoanalytic theory, psychometric (trait) theory, and social learning theory.  Personality: an organized combination of attributes, motives, values, and behaviors unique to each individual. - Dispositional traits: qualities of personality along which people differ (such as extraversion, independence). - Characteristic adaptations: more situation-specific and changeable ways in which people adapt to their roles and environments. - Narrative identities: unique and integrative life stories that we construct about our pasts and future. - Self-concept: your perceptions, or unique attributes and traits as a person.

- Self-esteem: your overall evaluation of your worth as a person. - Identity: an overall sense of who you are.  Psychoanalytic theory: - Form during the first 5 years of life and does not continue through adulthood. - Erickson: inner dynamics of personality and proposed the people undergo similar personality changes at similar ages. He also placed more emphasize on social influences.  Psychometric (trait) theory: - Personality is a set of dispositional trait dimensions along which people can differ. - Appear to be genetically influenced and emerge fairly early in life. - Also seem to be universal - Big 5 Personality Dimensions-Like psychoanalytic theorists, then, they expect to see carryover in personality over the years; unlike psychoanalytic theorists, however, they do not believe that the personality unfolds in a series of stages. o Trait Theoryo Extraversion (outgoing vs. introverted) o Agreeableness (cooperative vs. suspicious) o Conscientiousness (discipline/organized vs. lack of seriousness) o Neuroticism (emotional stability) o Openness to experience (variety vs. sameness)  Social learning theory: - Personality boils down to a set of behavioral tendencies shaped by interactions with other people in specific social situations. - He rejected the notion of universal stages - Situational influence: reject the notion of universal stages 2. Describe Thomas & Chess’ types of temperament, including approximate percentages of babies falling into each category. How do Kagan’s concept of behavioral inhibition and Rothbart’s three dimensions differ from Thomas & Chess’ temperament types, and do any of these correspond to the big five?  Thomas & Chess Temperament: - Easy 40%: even tempered, typically content or happy and open to adapt. - Difficult 10%: active, irritable and irregular in their habits - Slow-to-warm-up 15%: relative inactive, moody and only moderately regular in their daily schedules. - Goodness of fit: the extent to which the child’s temperature is compatible with the demands and expectations of the social world to which she must adapt.  Kagan Temperament - Found a 4th aspect - behavioral inhibition: the tendency to be shy, restrained, distressed). - Behavioral inhibition is biologically rooted  Rothbart Temperament: - Self regulation - Surgency/extraversion (energetic approach): tendency to actively, confidently and energetically approach new experiences. - Negative affectivity (irritable, fearful, sad) - Effortful control (attention, behavior, emotions): the ability to focus and shift attention when desired. 3. Explain when children seem to be capable of self-recognition, and discuss how social interaction and comparisons shape the development of a sense of self.  Self-recognition: the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror or photograph. At 18 months old. Depends on cognitive development and requires the maturation of certain areas of the brain.  Toddlers begin using personal pronouns like I, me, and mine.  Categorical self: classify themselves into social categories based on age, sex, and other visible characteristic

Self-awareness depends on the social interaction. Toddlers who have formed secure attachments to their parents are better able to recognize themselves in a mirror and know more about names and genders.  Also how much a child’s culture emphasizes individuality and autonomy can make a difference.  Parent-child conversations that focus on the children's experiences and the emotions associated with them help young children pull together what they know of themselves into a consistent self-concept  Social comparison: using information about how they compare with other individuals to characterize themselves. 4. Discuss self-esteem as multidimensional as well as the distinction between perceived and desired competence. In what ways do parents and cross-cultural influences affect self-esteem and personality?  Children distinguish two broad aspects of self-esteem: their competence (physical and cognitive) and their personal and social adequacy.  Children also form a sense of what they should be like – an ideal self.  Children with high self-esteem are securely attached to their parents.  Cross-cultural influences: - In America shyness is a liability but in China it is prized. 5. Explain Erikson’s adolescent stage and Marcia’s identity statuses and gender differences in identity achievement. What are challenges related to developing a positive ethnic identity?  Erickson’s adolescent stage: - Identity vs. Role confusion: o To achieve a sense of identity, one must integrate the varied perceptions that are part of the self-concept into a coherent sense of self. o Adolescents go through a identity crisis. Their bodies are changing and must revise their body images and adjust to being sexual beings. Cognitive growth allows them to think systematically about hypothetical possibilities. Social demands are placed on them to “grow up”. o Moratorium period: time during high school and college years when they are free of responsibilities.  Marcia’s identity statuses - Crisis experienced/commitment made o Diffusion status: no crisis and no commitment o Foreclosure status: commitment without a crisis o Moratorium stage o Identity achievement status: achieved firm identity by weighing alternatives.  Ethnic identity: sense of personal identification with an ethnic group and its values and cultural traditions. 6. Describe changes in self-concept, self-esteem, and the development of an ethnic identity as well as a vocational identity in childhood and adolescence.  Ethnic identity can protect adolescents from the damaging effects of racial or ethnic discrimination, it contributes to high overall self-esteem and promotes academic achievement and good adjustment.  Vocational identity: - Children younger than 10, explore this but they reflect fantasy rather than reality. - As an adolescent you begin to weigh factors other than wishes and make preliminary vocational choices. - Increasing realism with age: shift from fantasy to informed choice based on knowledge of both the self and the world of work. - 6 personality types that lead to vocational choices: o Investigative types – scientist o Social types – teachers o Realistic type – car mechanics 

o Artistic types – musician o Conventional types – librarians o Enterprising types – sales people 7. Describe influences, including individualistic versus collectivist cultures, on personality and the formation of identity.  Individualistic cultures: - Self-awareness develops more rapidly in cultures that emphasize autonomy and encourage children to pursue goals as individuals  Collectivist cultures: - Cultures that emphasize relatedness to others and subordinating individual goals to the goals o the group.  Formation of identity: - Cognitive development = adolescents who think in complex and abstract ways are more likely to resolve identity issues. - Personality = adolescent who explore and achieve identity tend to be more emotionally stable - Quality of relationship with parents - Opportunities of exploration = adolescents who attend college are exposed to diverse ideas and encouraged to think through issues independently. - Cultural context 8. Discuss research related to changes (continuity/discontinuities) in personality during childhood and during the adulthood years as well as how heredity and environment affect personality changes.  Continuity: - Consistency in rankings within a group, as indicated by high correlations between scores on the same trait dimensions at different ages. - Tendency to be consistent increased with age. - Stability in the mean level of a trait, is relevant when we ask whether there is truth to stereotypes of older adults.  Genetic makeup contributes to continuity.  Lasting effects of childhood experiences contribute. For example, that parents can either help a child overcome a difficult temperament or contribute to its becoming an enduring pattern of response.  Traits may remain stable because people’s environments remain stable, playing consistent social roles may be especially important in creating consistency in personality.  Gene-environment correlations can promote continuity.  Biological factors such as disease and dementia can change personality.  Major life events can also change personality.  Poor person-environment fit can also change personality. 9. Explain Erikson’s psychosocial stages and related research for adulthood.  Trust versus mistrust: infants learn to trust ...