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Exam 3 Roland Montgomery

Chapter 12: Origins of Food Production and Settled Life 1. Preagricultural Developments a. Epipaleolithic &Mesolithic i. Name of the age in Europe. b. Broad spectrum collecting i. Expanding the type of foods they are hunting and gathering. c. Broad spectrum collecting and sedentarism i. People start moving around less. d. Sedentarism and Population Growth: Accelerated i. Population growth caused people to become more sedentary and collect food from a larger spectrum to feed all. ii. Closing the age gap between births (from 4 to 2 years) caused population to go up and people to stick in one place more often. (A two year old can’t walk for miles as in the old time.) iii. Nutritional stress causes people of this age to be shorter. 2. Broad Spectrum Collecting and Sedentarism a. Sedentarism: settled life b. Sedentarism is not directly related to broad-spectrum collecting c. The closeness of people to their resources determine sedentarism 3. Domestication of Plants and Animals a. Neolithic revolution: i. Approximately 10,000 years ago the shift from food collection to food production utilizing domesticated plants and animals. b. Cultivation c. Domestication d. Beginnings of domestication cannot be seen archeologically; can only be seen after it occurred.

4. Domestication of Plants a. Tough Rachis i. The seed bearing part of the stem. ii. Domesticated plants have a tougher, and more seed-giving, rachis. b. Fragile Rachis i. Wild plants have a fragile rachis, with low-seed bearing number. c. Near East i. Wheat, oats, rye, barley, lentils, peas, apricots, pears, pomegranate, dates, figs, olives, almonds, pistachios. d. Asia i. Millet, rice, bottle gourds, water chestnuts, bamboo e. Africa i. Sorghum, bulrush millet, rice, yams f.

New World (Western Hemisphere) i. Summer squash, pumpkin, corn, beans, potatoes, tomatoes, peanuts, chili peppers, sweet potatoes, manioc – over 200 plant foods.

5. Domestication of Animals a. Dogs i. 12,000 years ago in New and Old World. b. Goats and Sheep i. 9,000 years ago in the Near East c. Cattle, Pigs i. 8,000 years ago in the Near East d. Horse i. 6,000 years ago in Central Asia e. Donkey i. 6,000 years ago in Africa. f. Cat i. 5,000 years ago in the Near East g. Chicken i. 4,000 years ago in the Near East h. Guinea Fowl

i. 4,000 years ago in the Africa i.

Turkey, Guinea Pig i. 1,500-2,000 years ago in the New World (Western Hemisphere).

6. Why did Food Production Develop? a. Gordon Childe i. Dramatic climate change led to domestication. ii. Fewer resources and extinction of plants and animals at the end of the Upper Paleolithic led to a focus on cultivation. iii. Climate change led to a proliferation of wild grain in the Near East, which was the first domesticated plant, giving more credit to this theory. b. Robert Braidwood and Gordon Willey i. Culture Readiness theory. ii. Domestication occurs when enough information has been accumulated. We had to understand how to breed plants and animals to breed plants and animals. c. Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery i. Population pressures, act to enhance resources. ii. As the population increased, humans had to move to more marginal areas and had to focus on advancing the resources in more abundant areas. Fits very well in archeological records of the Levant. d. Mark Cohen i. Change subsistence patterns to survive. ii. Broad collection spectrum and sedentary had already occurred so there weren’t marginal areas to move into. Subsistence patterns had to change for food production to develop. 7. Consequences of the Rise of Food Production a. Accelerated Population Growth i. Sedentary humans made more food and decreased the age gap between having children. b. Declining Health i. Grain based diet impacts health in a bad way, causing you to not have the right nutrients.

ii. Nutritional status is compromised and your immune system is weakened by it. Malnutrition causes decrease in stature as well. iii. Sedentary life also causes a decline in health and acts as a vector for disease. iv. Investment of a crop, and the subsequent failing of the crop, causes starvation. c. The Elaboration of Material Possessions. i. Gabled housing, furniture, etc. etc.. Woven textiles and pottery also come into play. ii. For the first time, people have stuff. 8. Clicker Questions a. What ______ Revolution was marked with the production and domestication of food and animals? i. Neolithic b. For the pre-contact Western Hemisphere, what were two of the most important domesticated animals? i. The dog and the turkey. c. Of the following, what was not a consequence of food production? i. Improving health. 13. Origins of Cities and States 1. Characteristics of State Societies a. Public buildings b. Full-time craft and religious specialists c. Official artistic style i. Very distinct style to a certain style. d. A hierarchical social structure with an elite class at the top. e. A monopoly on the legitimate use of force. i. The state can legitimately use force on its citizens to maintain order. f.

A city is an urban center with a large, populated center.

2. State Society a. First emerges in the Near East, where agriculture first emerges. (Mesopotamia).

3. Early origins of the state: Transition from Neolithic village to city. a. Agricultural innovation. i. More productive on the same amount of land. ii. Irrigation, crop rotation, etc. b. Diversification of labor i. A higher crop yield means that laborers can work in other occupations, i.e. craft and religious work. c. Emergence of ruling elite-Centralized authority i. Archeological evidence shows that whoever was in charge organized other people to build public buildings. ii. Public buildings = centralized authority. d. Social stratification-emergence of social classes. i. Increased size of dwellings from an egalitarian Neolithic village, to more fanciful city dwellings. ii. Emergence of social classes. iii. Writing of laws. 4. Theories about the origin of the State a. Irrigation or hydraulic theory i. Associated with a guy name Wittfogel. ii. Social or government structure which maintains power and control through exclusive control over access to water. It arises through the need for flood control and irrigation, which requires central coordination and a specialized bureaucracy. b. Population growth, circumscription, and war i. Robert Carneiro. ii. Environmental barriers such as mountains, etc., are the cause of people to coalesce into a single place. iii. Population density causes people to centralize and fight for resources, etc. c. Local and long-distance trade i. Wright and Johnson. ii. Trade is necessary to get stuff that you don’t have easy access to. iii. To get trade organized, you need a centralized authority.

d. Religion i. Certain areas that become cities because people want to live near them because they are associated with some supernatural event or place. ii. This in turn requires an increase in agricultural production. e. Action theory i. Marcus and Flannery ii. More attention to the role of a dynamic individual in the emergence of a state society and city. iii. A charismatic leader may have had an important factor in the “founding” of a city, e.g. Romulus and Remus, Gilgamesh. 5. Clicker Questions a. According to information presented in class, the first known writing system was developed by the ancient _____. i. Chinese. b. Which of the following is not proposed as the reason for the development of the state? i. Social stratification. c. Where did the earliest states emerge? How long ago? i. Sumeria; 5,500 years ago. 14. Culture 1. What is culture? a. Culture is the set of learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals that are characteristic of a particular society or population. 2. Features and Assumptions of Culture a. Culture is commonly shared: i. Age 1. A factor that varies amongst cultures. 2. Expectations are different for adults and children, but children are still supposed to learn social norms. ii. Gender 1. Gender differentiation in culture is a cultural model.

2. Men and women often occupy different roles and are expected to fit different roles. 3. These roles are highly culturally specific. iii. Subculture 1. Subcultural variation. 2. Little groups within a culture acts differently that other groups within that culture 3. Something that occurs in pluralistic societies (multicultural). 4. The media uses subcultures differently than anthropologists. Anthropologists uses people like the Amish as a subculture. b. Society i. A common group of individuals that share a set of ideals and norms (social standards). 3. Features and Assumptions of Culture a. Culture is based on symbols (language). i. Language is the most important type of symbolic communication. ii. All humans have a language (not necessarily spoken) where the language is a symbol for something. b. Culture is mostly integrated. i. Ex.: Money is value is culture. Our occupation is regarded as how much money they make. From this, our social stature is developed. ii.

ownculture. You cannot really examine each on their own without examining another part.

c. Culture is generally adaptive i. When population first moved out of Africa into colder climate, they didn’t just wait around for acclimation and selective processes, they went out and built fires and shelters and killed animals for their fur. Culture is adaptive. d. Culture is dynamic. i. Culture is changing. Discovery and invention can change cultural behavior of the people. ii. Nonmaterial cultural change has to be embraced by a large group of people, maybe even at a world level.

iii. Material culture changes a lot faster, and can be adapted by just individuals. iv. Technology is a just a tool which can or cannot be accepted and helpful. 15. Cultural Constraints and models: Ideal vs. Real. 1. Social norms are the guidelines which a culture runs it by. Our ideals are based on what society used to be and how we think it should be. Real society is based on how things really are and how they really apply in situation. 2. Attitudes that hinder the study of culture a. Ethnocentrism i. Judging other cultures solely in terms of your own culture b. The “Noble Savage” fallacy i. Other cultures that are more “savage” or “less cultured” than us are in some way more noble or close to nature. 3. Cultural Relativism a. The attitude that a society’s customs and ideas should be viewed within the contact of the society’s problems and opportunities. 16. Communication and Language Humans mitigate primarily by spoken language, but also through systems of signs and symbols, body stance, and expressions. Language does not have to be spoken (i.e. sign language) and can share the same characteristics as spoken language. 1. Communication and Language a. Language i. A system of communication, using sounds or gestures as symbols that are put together in a meaningful ways according to certain rules, resulting in meanings that are based on agreement by society and intelligible to all who share that language. b. Language is symbolic i. Has meaning when referent not present ii. Meaning is arbitrary iii. Symbols have to be learned. iv. Sounds or gestures that stand for particular meanings in a group of people.

c. Ethnologue i. Roughly 6,909 languages. ii. 126 sign languages iii. 457 nearly extinct languages. 2. Communication and Language a. Animal communication i. Closed systems; that is they can’t generate new symbols ii. No past and future events iii. Smell, sound, body, movement b. Human Communication i. Open system; easy to generate new symbols ii. Past and future event are communication c. Coco the Gorilla i. Was “taught” sign language. ii. Gorilla’s hands are different than humans, so Coco’s sign language is a tad different than ours. iii. Coco has created her own symbols: glasses = “eye hat”, brush = “scratch stick”. iv. Other gorillas in the experiment also have told stories. A male gorilla in the study told them of how the “hunters had killed his mother”. v. Coco uses her body to communicate and create new symbols using a form of sign language and gorilla language. 3. Origins of Language and Language Acquisition a. Displacement (moving from one area to another) would have been substantial to the creation of language. You needed words or utterances for every new thing. b. How do children learn language? i. Babies tend to pick up more and more language as they grow and develop. (Babies born to deaf parents tend to pick up sign language quicker than spoken language). ii. Language Acquisition device: the desire and ability to learn language is biologically based. The template, ability, drive to learn language is housed in the brain. This is called the Language Acquisition device. c. Pidgins

i. A language that the syntax and vocabulary of two other languages are simplified and combined. Occurs when two groups come in contact together. ii. Lack prepositions and auxillary verbs. iii. If one lingual group of the two is of higher social status, you will see that lingual group’s vocabulary used more often. d. Creoles i. Suggestion that there is an innate grammatical structure. ii. A pidgin language that becomes the dominant language of the society, after the two lingual groups become one society. iii. A different grammar than the languages that come together to make that pidgin. iv. Have characteristics of a universal grammar. v. The fact that we think that template is there is that the kids across different cultures make the same mistakes in grammar suggests this universal grammatical structure. e. Feral Children i. Children who are not properly exposed to society and its norms. ii. Children who are not exposed and beginning learning language by age 3; there is something that shuts down in its brain that can’t be turned back on. They won’t be able to learn language ever, really. 4. Descriptive Linguistics a. Unraveling a language by recording and unraveling, analyzing its components. b. Phonology i. The study of sound in language, how they are made, and how they are used. ii. Phonemes: smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning in language. (Toh-may-toh vs. toh-mah-toh) 1. You know what sounds to listen to to make a difference in words. c. Morphology i. The sequence of sounds and how the sounds sequences have meanings. The study of patterns and rules to the formation of words and language. ii. Morph: the smallest unit of pattern that has meaning. (Cat + s = Scat or Cats; you know that “s” has to be in a pattern to have meaning) d. Syntax

i. The study of the order of words to have meaning in a language. ii. Grammar: the principles that predict how most people will talk. 5. Historical Linguistics a. The study of language over time, the relationships and histories of language. b. Tend to focus on languages that have no written form, have a written form that isn’t understood well, or a language that just recently has a written form. c. Protolanguage i. Linguistic divergence: hypothesis of the development of different languages (at least two) from an ancestral language. (Proto-Indo-European.) ii. Proto-Indo-Europeans were probably a forest-dwelling folk. 6. Paralanguage a. All the vocal features and silences that communicate other features of language. Not what is said, but how it is said. (Body language and tone of voice). b. Kinesics i. Postures, body movement, gestures, bodily manners, etc. Body language. ii. Conveying information without saying anything. c. Proxemics i. Distance between people. (“Personal space”) ii. Cultural differences in social distances, i.e. what is deemed appropriate in social situations concerning space between people. 7. Language and Culture a. Look at the discussion for basic words for colors, plants, and animals. b. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis i. Language is a force in its own right. Language shapes the way in people act and behaves. ii. Predisposes people to see the world in a specific way and therefore shapes how people will act. iii. People, who speak different languages, essentially live in different worlds. iv. Understanding in a different way. (Thinking in a different language to work things out.) c. The Ethnology of speaking

i. Study of how people in society speak and speech variation in social status or subcultures. ii. Social status and speech 1. You would speak differently to someone of a different social status. iii. Gender and speech 1. Appropriate words for a man and woman to use in situations. 2. In America, women are trained to build consensus in speech and men are taught to solve in speech. iv. Multilingualism and code-switching. 1. Processing of switching from one level of language during speech, concerning social rules and such. 8. Clicker Questions a. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that: i. Language is a force in its own right that affects how individuals in a society perceive and conceive reality. There is substantial scientific evidence to suggest that there is a structure in the brain

b.

that allows humans to be ready to learn language at birth. What is this structure called? i. Language acquisition device. c. Which of the following is considered paralanguage? i. Laughing. Halloween? 1. Samhain a. Gaelic festival marking the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter or the 'darker half' of the year. 2. Liminal a. Pertaining to the threshold of a ritual. 3. Origins a. Celtic. 17. Getting Food 1. Food Collection

a. Also called foragers or hunter-gatherers i. Before the Neolithic Revolution (10,000 years ago), this was the primary production of subsistence. ii. Not as common as other areas. iii. Marginal areas. iv. Well-nourished and did have sickness as often. v. Small communities. vi. Nomadic lifestyles vii. Do not practice animal husbandry. (Breeding and raising animals). viii. Generally do not recognize land or individual rights. ix. Egalitarian. (Age and gender are the main status determinates.) x. (No full time leaders or religious folk). 2. Forms of Food Production a. Horticulture i. Growing of crops with relatively simple tools (usually hand tools) in the absence of permanently cultivated field. 1. Generally grow a variety of crops in a single garden than a laid out place. 2. Can move their fields b. Intensive Agriculture i. Cultivating fields permanently ii. Using heavy use of fertilizer, crop rotation, plows, and irrigation. c. Pastoralism i. People who depend mostly on herds of domesticated animals that feed pasture. d. Food Collectors 3. Horticulture a. Extensive of Shifting Cultivation i. Slash and burn tactics – shifting cultivation; land is worked for short periods of time and then left idle. ii. Tree crops: orchards and such – Extensive cultivation. iii. Similar to backyard gardening – a little bit of a lot of things. (Not monoculture, where you grow one thing.) b. Larger, more densely populated communities.

c. More sedentary. i. Farm enough to be self-sufficient. d. Some stratification. 4. Intensive agriculture a. Cultivate fields permanently i. Using techniques to cultivate fields permanently like irrigation and crop rotation. b. Craft specialization c. Farm enough to support them and make excess to sell. d. Urban life is an effect of this surplus and craft specialization. e. Stratification. i. Stratification between farmers and city folk. ii. City folk try harder to be nicer to other city folk than worry about rural areas. iii. As society becomes stratified, you get more classes and less equality. 5. Pastoralism a. Based directly or indirectly on the maintenance of domesticated animals. i. Mostly engaged in herding and animal husbandry in mammals (cows, goats, sheep, and yaks, any critter that eats grass and gives milk). b. Eat the products from their animals (milk or blood), but rarely meat. Blood a small amount and make blood soup and such. c. Their well is measured by the number of animals they have. Wealth is having a lot of animals. d. Trade animals and products for plant foods. i. Most pastoralists have an agreement with farmers around them to trade their products for grain and other farm products from agriculturists. e. Pastoralists move a lot – nomad...