Explain the procedure and findings of research into coding, capacity and duration of LTM and STM PDF

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Explain the procedure and findings of research into coding, capacity and duration of LTM and STM. ICLUDE EVALUATION POINTS Type of memor y STM

LTM

Coding The format in which the memory is tored – theform canbe acoustic, semantic Baddely Gave his ppts 4 lists to remember separately -acoustically similar -acoustically dissimilar -semantically similar -semantically dissimilar Ppts were asked to recal in the corrct orer He found that when tested striagth away the ppts tended to do worse on acoustically similar worder - thies suggests that the STM encodes words acoustically Also when he tested them 20 minute later he found that pprs did worse on semantically similar words suggesting that the LTM encodes semantically

Duration How long the info is held in the memory store Peterson and Peterson 3-30 seconds Tested 24 students using 8 trials Ppts were given a new trigram and 3 digit numbers at every trial Inference task  counting back from a different number by three for a different amout of time to avoid rehearsal -after 3 secs 80% recall -after 6 secs = 50% recall After 18 secs – = recall less than 10%

Capacity How much info can be held in the memory store Miller Said that the average capacity -= 7 +/- 2 items People remember things by chunking (grouping letters/digits into units) and people recall 5 words as well as 5 letters

BADDELLY

Bahrick Used nearly 400 ppts from ages 1774to test their recall Their old classmates using their school yearbooks – some had to use free recall whereas another group using photo recognition Found that using free recall After 15 years rec = 60%, in 48 years recall=30% USsing photorec recall = 90% within 15 years and 70% in 48 yeas

Potentially unlimed Impossible to test

Evaluation

BADDELLY He used artificial stimuli  not meaningful inreal life so less able to generalise an limited application Low ecological validity LTM may not be exclusively semantic when processing more meaningful material people may use semnatic in the STM Miller Cowan said thst people have the cap for 4 items in the STM Using other research Some ppts may only remember certain items for person reason so there are indivual differeneces Peterson and Peterson Llow external validity  usin trigram s and numbers do not reflect real life have,limited application not meaingul stimuli Good because used real life meaningful stimuli high exernal validity – real memories studied Bas because CVs not controlled  may have rehearsed over the years idivual differences

Explain hwta is meant by the duration of STM Duraltion refers to how long information I hed in a store. The duration of STM is between 18 to 30 seconsds an was teted by Peterson and Peterson whp used trigram and 3 digit numbers and askd 24 students in 8 trialls to recall them after conduted n inferencs task of counting down from ad iffferent number by 3 for a specified amount of time. This was odne to prevent rehearsal. Eh found tha after 3 secods recal was 80%, after 6 secods recl was 50% and after 18 secods recall was les that 10% This study had low exernal validity  trigram are aruticial stimiullia and are not meaning ful so the stdy study has limited application to real life Outline the MSM The MSM States that the sensory memory, STM and LTM are separate and distint are work in a sinear and ssequncial way.info passed from left to right LTM an STM are separate and distinct sonres - unitaqry Envromental stimuli enters the sersory register (very large cap, 1.5-2 secs, info is unprocessed – cant control what enters, oasively registered) – may be echoic (auditory), haptice (muscle tensions) or iconic (visual) When attention ispaid to it it enter the STM (acoustic, 18-30 sec, 7 +/-2 items). If is is rehearse it will enter the LTM (ulimited, lifetime, semanic) by without maintenance rehearsl the info will decay. In long term mamery it can be retrieved to the STM

Outline two criticisms of the MSM The case study of KF illustrates one eakness of the MSM because his LTM meroy was not affted – however his verbal memory was affted whereas his nvisual memory was not. This suggests there is more than one tyoes of STM and it is not unitary as the MSM suggests. KF falisifes the isudea o funtiary store One strength of the MSM is that the study by Galnze and cuniz suggests there is seoarate stores – they gave their ppts a list of 20 words and found that word an the start of the list were easly recall becsuse thevy were rehearsed and send to the LMT (primacy efect) Aand wordsat the endo of the loist were remained in the STM so were easily reclly (recentcy effect) however, wordin themiddle of thelist were not well recalled bec au e they were puhed out by new words and npt rehearsed. This shuppors the idea of speateate and distinct stored for the STM Explain the types of LTM memory Semantic  common knowledge shared by all including fuctions, behaviors that is appropriate, e.g. capital of engaln is London begins as episodic then loses acssociation to generalise Episondic  recollection of paritcualr personal experience , looking at the event, context and emotion- e.g. first dya of school Procedural  knowing how to do something aquiered through reprition or pracrtice– e.g. tying shoelaces how to swim/read – they are implitit  we are less aware because they automnatic. Thisb is important so we can do othe tasks – thinking to uch abour hem prevents us from acting them out step by step disrupts the process Explain one study into the types of LTM Tulving’s use of brain scans show that when different types of LTM are being used different areas of the brin are active. For xample the scans showed that when the samantiv memory is being used the temporal lobe is being yse, when episodic memory is in use the hippocampus is active and the corebellus is active when using the procedural meory This supports the idea of different types of LTM as different parts o the rain are active – suggest s the y are distinct areas of the LTM This is good support because brain scans are scietifica nad objective ways of testing – which reduces bias. The case study of HM also provideds evidence for the types of LTM because he was able to form new procedural but not episodic or semantic memories – o he had not moemy of learning how to mirror draw. So they must be 3 separate types of LTM if one can be damaged and the others aren’t – but be distinct.however it is hard to know which part of the brain are affecte until after the death of the patient because the area that is damaged may just be a relay station – not thaet area responsible for that types of LTM Furthermore, Belliviille showed that episodic memory can be improved in elerly people – he compared a trained groupd to a control group and found that the ppts trained in episodic meory did beeter in a memory test . this suggests that memory as memory can be distinguished can be specifically imporved treatment o help people and that ois moe effective Calculate the mean score for each test Episodic  4.8 Semantic  8.2 Explain what is meant by central executive It is the main area control attentional processes -, it assigns different information to the appropriate slave system so we can respond correctly. It control what information we take notice pf payy attention to – incoming data from the slave systems and LTM. It performs cognitive taks such as reasoning and recalls info from th LTM, LIMITED duration an capacity 0 any ecoding Explain what is meant by episodic buffer The episoic buffer was added late bey baddely as a temporary general store that combine infor from th sketchpad and phonological loop. It encodes visually, spacially and acoustically. It works in common with all working memory stores and records events and time sequences that are happening and send them to the LTM Briefly outline the WMM The WMM was created by baddely and hitch and include the complex active and distinct stores that make up the STM focuses on th efuntion of the STM. It satates that when using the same slave system for 2 different tasks it cannot be done successfully – but it is possible when using different slave systems. The central exectuvie controls attentional processes - what enter s the Stm – whether we pay attention and assigns incoming data to different slave systems to we can repond appropriately it also performs cognitive tasks such as reaisning (limited dir, limited cap and any encoding ). The slave systems include the The visio-spatial lsketch pad what things look like and layout of obect or places helpls when planning a layout helps us creat a mental image and keep tra of our surrounddnigs so we know where we are and were we are going (cap 3-4, coding visual spatial) known as the inner eye. The phonological loop is used to store autditiry information – any written seen or read words are converted via atrucally control process inner voice a form of maintenance rehearsal and then transfers it to the ohonological store. This is the inner ear stores word or sounds and the duration is 2 seconds cap Is limited an dconding is acoustic. The episodic buffer was added as a temporary general store and intergrates information from all stores. ( coding visual, spatial and acoustic ad verbal) it reconrd events that are happening an time seuqences and sen them to LTM – works with all stores (cap is 4 units) Evaluate the WMM The WMM has evience from badely sn hitch. They asked ppts to complete 2 tasks. The first included completeing 2 visual tasks –tracking a light and describe the angles on the let ‘f’. the researchers found tht this was ifficult or them and they took a long time to complete it. This is because they were using the same slave system – the visio-spatial sketch pad. The second task ask ed the ppts to track a light ancomplete a verbal taks – so they were using two dfifferen tslacves systems – the vio-spatial ketchpad and the phonological loop. They found that this taks wa completed uicker and more easily by the ppts because they were using differne t slave system there was less competition. This support the WMM which states that there is more thn one stype of STM Aand . The case study of KF also supports the idea of there being different stores in the STM. KF’’s stdufy showed that his LTM was unaffected but his STM was. However his only hisverbal abilities were damages whesar his visual abilities were not. Therefore his supported the isea of their being separate and ditince STM store - inthis case his phonologicl loop was damages and his visio-spatial skethpad was intact. So this supports the STM TYPES. Write a suitable hyporthsis Shorter words will be easier to recal correctly that longer words  directional What is one confoundling variable in this study

Some of the words used may have a personal meaning to the ppts so they are easier to reall and these indiviall differences will affect the outcoe of the study – lack validity. Shorter words are used mor e frewuenctly – so wil be easier to recal Explain proactive theories of forgetting When an older memory interferes with an newer one for example ateacher has learnt so many names from her older classes she can’t relcall her new classes names it is more loiley to happen if the memoryies are similar Explain what is meant by retroactive theories of forgetting This is when newer memories interfere with the recall of older ones. This is more liey to happten if the memories anre similar. E.g. a teacher learns her new classes names and soforgets the names of her older clases Describe one study in which interference was studie McGeoch and McDonald gave their ppts 4 different word lists tht had to be learnt 100% adnthen the next one had to be learnt. McgEOCH and McDonald changed the amout of similarity between the 2 word lists that ppts had to learn 100%, and then learn the new list. They found that synomyns had to worst recall It was a labs tudy with arifical stimuli/not meaniningful – limite application to real life and low in ecological validity and mundande realism – demand charaterists and time gaps  hard to generalise Tulving and Pooska disagreed with the theory of interference – he gave ppts 5 words lists containg 24 words in 6 categories – they were not explicit but prmple the envorinmentesumabley obvious. The fisrt list had a reall of 70% but thiss decreased with every list they ere given – due to interferenace. However when they were given a cued recal test recall improved again – so this shows they had not forgotten the words – as they could still recall them therefore interfenece is not a theory of forgetting Badelley and Hitch conducted a natural experimaent in ehich they asked rugby players to recall teams they had played against in previous matches – some of them had missed matches due to inury ir illness so did not play in every match. They found that recall depended on how many games they had played not how long ago they played them- because the more games they played the lower the recall of their players was. This supports theidea of retroactive interference – new memories interfering with the older ones to cause forgetting in ar rreal life situation Explain retrireval failure as an explanation for forgetting Retrieval failure is a formof forgetting when the memory is avaialovble but not accessible withour specif cues. In state0dependent forgetting the person does not the correct physical or psychological ces (e.g. drunk or state of coscioiuness). In context depependent forgetting the external cues are different for example th environment Explain what is meant by ‘cue’ It is a trigger that causes us to recall a memory that is available not accessible unless this cue is provided They can be meaningfull or indirectly encoded into the memory when it is being formed DEcribe one study in which retrieval failure was stsdies Baddely and Godden gave divers a list of word to learn either under water or on land. They were then asked to recal them either on water or in land. They found that those who recalled them in non-matching conditions did 40#% worse that those who did. This suggests that the externatal cues – of the environment did have an impact on how well the ppts recalled. This supports context-dependet retrevial fainlure. Cater an d Cassidy gave some of their ppts hayfever drugs to make them drownsy and different than their normal psychological state the othe rhalf was not drugged and had them eanr word lists. In this case some were redrugged and some did not. They found that those who were in the same psychological state as they had been during learning recalled the words a lot better that thoses who were not in the same sate . So when the state cues were not present recll was worse – supporting state dependet forgetting Explain how there may have been demand characteristics in this study The ppts may have worked out that the study was to do with effct of chewing gym on memory or recallThey may have showed the please/screw you effect  some ppts may have tried hard to remember the words in orer to help the researche achied the results or some may have tried to sabotage the study by not trying to recall the words well Explain what is meant by standardised and fove one example Standardised is when the study is carried out in the same specific way for all ptts. One example is that each ppts would have to learn the 15 worrd specifically in 2 minutes and the correcti time for recall Explain this findigin in terms of cues Recreating the cotext – ir the smeels provides a contenx-dependetn cues which mean that person assicacites with the the memory of what they learnt during their visit to the museum Explain what is meant by post-event discussion When witnesses talk about the event they have seen they can eb influenced the accuracy of their memory prone to memory conformity and there memories can be disprted to macth other peoples Briefly outline studies into muslieadig information Gabber had two groups of ppts watch vidoes of a girl stealing money. They either watched the same video in pair or alone – but were all from different angles. After they havd watch the video, they were to discuss it with others nad then completed a questionnaire. They found that 71% of ppts were recalling information they had idsscused an d not actuallu seen for them selves and 605 o f co-witness ppts who had not seen they girl stealing claimed that she was guilt and reported incorrect details due to discussio. this suggests that post event discussion can hhugely afftect eye-witnes teristmoney and lead to memor conformity which is important as it an mean that people are wrongly accused and convicted of crimes. Loftu san dPlamer had ppts watch a video ofa car rash, and where the asked questions about it . one was a ‘citical question  ‘how fast was the car going when it hit?’ – the word hit was replace by bumped , smashed contacted and collided. Loftus and plamer found that when the harsher words’smashed was

used’ the mean esteimate time the ppts suggested was 40.5 mph, whereas when a less violen word such as contacted was used ppts estimated it was 3 1.8 pmh – esmated. This suggests that phrasing of a question can influence tha answer. This is because memories are fragile and easily distroted

Write a suitable aim for this study To if the choice of words used in a question (the effects of a leading question on the effect of eyewitnesss testimoney)will have an impact on the ppts response – ie the speed of a car Explain why random allocation was needed To ensure the results were caused by the IV – the chnge of words and not just just occurring by chance or the tyoes of ppt used –some ppts may just be mor familirar with the speed of cars Explain one streng an on criticism of using questionnaries in this study On strength is that it is quicker and therefore more ppts can be asked in a shortedr amount of time this ismeans it is more cost edffective – alos interviewers would not have to be trained andpaid One crti csu that you cannot see a ppts visual reposnse to a question Explain one ethical issue form this study Seeoing a car crash may disress come ppts an dmake thm upset so they are not fee from psychological harm as every researcher should ensure that they are

Explain what is meant by anxiety It is a state of high physical and emotional arousal which makes includeds having worried thought and feeling tension, includes increased heart rate, blood pressure ad sweating feeling pleasant emotions difficult. It can affect eyewitness testomonmy – make it etter or worse Explain studies of anxiety of EWT Jhoson and Scott stages an argument between two men while the ppts where in the waiting room. In one group there was intention to cause only low anxiety – the ppts say a man leave with a pen and greasy hans 47% of the ppts could identify him out of 50 photos whereas in the high anixtety group the pps heard shouting and a man with bloody hands just 33% of the ppts could identify him out of 50 photos. They propoed the tunnel theory – witnesses focus on the weapon as an anxiety source and physical arousal prevents us from paying attention to other cues. The researchers found that recall was better with the low anxiety group – this shows that high anxiety can worsen EWT and prenets us form paying attention to details One weakness of this study id that it has produced anxiety in the ppts cause them to obe stressed this sis ans ethical issues as it exposes the pts to potential psychological harm Pickel disagrees with ohson and Scott’s findings – he believe the weapon focus many be because they are suprsised to see that paritcualr item. In a hari salon video he used scissors (low ancity, low unusualness), a handgun (high anixiety, high unusualness), a wallet (low anietty, low unualuneess) and a rubber chcken. He found that were there was high unucuallness the EWT was usually a lot poorer – so the weapon fouces was due to unusualness NOT anxiety Yuille and Cutshall conducted a tudy in which the 13 of 21 people who had witnessed a shop owner shoot dead a htief came back to conduct a interview 3-5 months later. Accuracy was determined on the amount of details provided. The ppts were also asked to rate their stress one a 1-7 scale and if they had had any emotional problem since the. They found that those with high stress provided more eta...