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FORESTRY PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS Editors & Authors ANTONY JOSEPH RAJ Ph.D. Associate Professor (Forestry) Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection Mekelle University, Ethiopia & Associate Dean (On Leave) College of Forestry and Environment Sam Higginbottom Ins...

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FORESTRY PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Editors & Authors

ANTONY JOSEPH RAJ

Ph.D.

Associate Professor (Forestry) Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection Mekelle University, Ethiopia & Associate Dean (On Leave) College of Forestry and Environment Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute) Deemed University Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

S.B. LAL Ph.D. Pro-Vice Chancellor and Dean, College of Forestry & Environment of SHIATS-Deemed University (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute), Allahabad

Published by: Scientific Publishers (India) 5 A, New Pali Road, P.O. Box 91 Jodhpur 342 001 (India)

Branch Office Scientific Publishers (India) 4806/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi - 110 002 (India)

E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.scientificpub.com

© 2013, Antony Joseph Raj & S.B. Lal All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, adapted, abridged, translated, stored in a retrieval system, computer system, photographic or other systems or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the authors and the publishers. Disclaimer: Whereas every effort has been made to avoid errors and omissions, this publication is being sold on the understanding that neither the author nor the publishers nor the printers would be liable in any manner to any person either for an error or for an omission in this publication, or for any action to be taken on the basis of this work. Any inadvertent discrepancy noted may be brought to the attention of the publishers, for rectifying it in future editions, if published.

ISBN: 978-81-7233-810-7

Typeset by Rajesh Ojha Printed in India

PREFACE

The material resources and life supporting functions provided by forest lands are particularly important in developing countries where some people still rely on them directly as sources of food, fodder, fuelwood, medicine, shelter, building materials and as centers of certain cultural practices. In recent years, the capability of forests to mitigate climate change, provide renewable products and energy, maintain biological diversity, protect land and water resources, provide recreation facilities, improve air quality, help alleviate poverty and contribute to developing a greener economy have received increasing attention. But at the same time, these benefits are threatened by land and forest degradation, global warming and extreme weather events. An ever increasing population places enormous demands on the forest and land resources. Carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems has become an important issue both in the political discussion about abrupt climate change and forest ecosystem research. National Forest Policy 1988 mandates expanding forest cover from 23.81 to 33 per cent of India’s territory and the overarching objective of the Green India Mission is to increase forest and tree cover in 5 million hectares and improve quality of forest cover in another 5 million hectares. There is a challenge to devise comprehensive work plan for sustainable development of forests in India in next twenty years. To cope with challenging task, forest managers have to integrate modern knowledge resulting from all the disciplines of forestry into the management plans. We are expected to shift towards modern trends and latest concepts to upgrade the knowledge and skills in forestry. This book is the first in the forestry text book series to synthesize information on relevant processes, factors and causes of carbon turnover in forest ecosystem and the technical and economic potential of carbon sequestration. Accordingly the book is able to fill an important gap between the needs of global forest and environmental policies and local forest management. In fact, the book makes a valuable contribution to the knowledge of students, academicians, research scientists, modern foresters and policy makers, which will, in turn, guide efforts to manage the remaining forests and new forests in the millennia to come. There are many forestry textbooks available in India which provide a more balanced account of subjects. The classic examples are textbooks authored by pioneers like P.K.R. Nair, D.N. Tewari, L.S. Khanna, A.P. Dwivedi, A.N. Chaturvedi, Tribhawan Mehta, Ram Prakash, S.S. Negi, R.K. Luna and others. In many aspects, the topics and structure of this

iv

Forestry : Principles and Applications

textbook is highly meritorious and unique. All the individual chapters are contributed by Subject Matter Specialists/ Experts of high repute carefully selected based on their experience and practical knowledge from throughout India and abroad (few chapters). In fact, the book collates valuable knowledge on forestry and natural resources which will be useful to students for their regular semester exams, University entrance examinations for admission to M.Sc. & Ph.D. programmes, preparation of competitive exams like Civil Service Exams (UPSC), Indian Forestry Service (UPSC), ICAR-ARS Scientist Exam, ICFRE Forestry Scientist Exams, NET Exam, State Public Service Commission Exams, etc. This compilation will be most useful for the people in Universities and Colleges, Research Institutions dealing with biological sciences, agricultural sciences and forestry sciences and Forest Departments of all the States of India. The general subject matters available in the book will be beneficial to persons from forestry, agriculture and natural resources field in other countries. This textbook will contribute significantly to academic teaching and scientific research. Additional information or suggestions that will improve this book are invited from experts. Finally we would like to express our deep gratitude to all our friends and well wishers for providing numerous comments and suggestions for enhancing the quality of the book.

ANTONY JOSEPH RAJ S.B. LAL September 2012

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Prof. S.B. Lal

Prof. M. Paramathma

Pro-Vice Chancellor and Dean, College of Forestry and Environment, SHIATS Deemed University, (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute), Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh

Executive Director, National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Development (NOVOD) Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, Gurgaon, Haryana

Shri. K.C.A. Arun Prasad, IFS

Prof. S. Chellamuthu

Director & Dy. CWLW (Keoladeo National Park) in Rajasthan Forest Department (Earlier) and Presently on Deputation as Associate Professor, Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

Director, Water Technology Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Shri. L.Chandrasekar, IFS

Prof. N.B. Singh

Divisional Forest Officer, Kerala Forest Department (Earlier) and Presently on Deputation in Central Academy for State Forest Service, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Director of Extension Education, Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh

Shri. Rajesh G. Nair, IFS

Prof. S.T. Naik

Associate Director of Extension, University of Additional Chief Executive, Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneswar, Odisha Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka Shri. M. Senthil Kumar, IFS

Prof. C. Sekhar

Divisional Forest Officer, Dharmapuri Division, Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu

Professor and Head, Department of Forest Resource Management, Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu

Shri. N. Satheesh, IFS

Prof. C.T. Ashok Kumar

Divisional Forest Officer, Satyamangalam Division, Sathyamangalam, Tamil Nadu

Department of Entomology, college of agriculture, U.A.S., G.K.V.K., Bangalore, Karnataka

vi

Forestry : Principles and Applications

Dr. K. Sasikumar, IFS

Dr. Ramakrishna Hegde

Divisional Forest Officer, North Tripura District, Kumarghat, Tripura

Associate Professor & Head, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Ponnampet (UAS, Bangalore), Karnataka

Shri. Sanjayan Kumar, IFS

Dr. K.T. Parthiban

Deputy Director, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala

Associate Professor (Forestry), Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu

Shri. R. Manikanda Ramanujam, IFS

Dr. P. Masilamani

Deputy Conservator of Forest Wadsa Forest Division Maharashtra

Associate Professor (Seed Science &Technology) Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Kumulur, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu

Shri. Bheemsingh Mohandaas, IFS

Dr. C. Buvaneswaran

Assistant Conservator of Forest (Working Plan), J&K Forest Department, Jammu and Kashmir

Scientist, Division of Forestry, Land Use and Climate Change, Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Shri. T. Mohan Raj, IFS

Dr. A. Venkatesh

Assistant Conservator of Forest, Tonk, Rajasthan

Principal Scientist (Forestry), ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam (Barapani), Meghalaya

Dr. A.V. Santhoshkumar

Dr. Sharad Nema

Associate Professor & Head, Department of Tree Associate professor (Forestry) & Head, School Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry of Studies (Forestry & Wildlife), Bastar University, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh Dr. Munish Kumar

Dr. J. Jayaprakash

Associate Professor, Department of Soil Scientist, Central Soil and Water Conservation Conservation and Water Management/Forestry, Research and Training Institute (ICAR), C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Dehradun Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh Dr. Sanjeev Thakur

Mr. Etefa Guyassa

Senior Scientist, Department of Tree Improvement and Genetic Resources, College of Forestry, Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh

Head, Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia

List of Contributors

vii

Dr. P. Ratha Krishnan

Dr. S. K. Uttam

Senior Scientist (Forestry), Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan

Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Conservation and Water Management/Forestry, C.S. Azad University of Agricultural & Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Shri. S. Gopakumar

Dr. Manmohan J.R. Dobriyal

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Forest Management &Utilization, College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala

Head In-charge, Department of Forest Products and Utilization, College of Horticulture and Forestry, MPUAT, Jhalawar, Rajasthan

Dr. S. Umesh Kanna

Dr. Munesh Kumar

Assistant Professor (Forestry), Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu

Assistant Professor, Department of Forestry, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand

Shri. Ashutosh Pandey

Dr. Rainer W. Bussmann

Oilseeds Division, National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Development (NOVOD) Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, Gurgaon, Haryana

William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA

Shri. Jadegowda

Dr. A. Vidhyavathi

Assistant Professor, College of Forestry, Ponnampet (UAS, Bangalore), Karnataka

Assistant Professor, Department of Forest Resource Management, Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu

Mrs. Smitha Rajesh

Dr. Afaq Majid Wani

Department of Forestry, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Assistant Professor, College of Forestry and Environment, SHIATS Deemed University, (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute), Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh

Ms. S. Vennila

Shri. R. Ezhumalai

Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Scientist -Wood Science, Institute of Wood Science and Technology (IWST), Mettupalayam, Bangalore, Karnataka Tamil Nadu

CONTENTS

PART 1: NATURAL RESOURCES Chapter 1

Soil Resources – Munish Kumar

1-25

What is Soil? - Soil Components - Soils of India - Nutrient Cycling - Nutrient Cycling in Forest Ecosystem - Weathering - Soil Formation - Organic Matter Carbon Nitrogen Ratio - Humus Chapter 2

Water Resources – S. Chellamuthu

26-37

Introduction - Water Resources of India - Water Requirements of India - Water Resources Management in India - Conclusion Chapter 3

Forest Resources – Antony Jospeh Raj & Afaq Majid Wani

38-52

Introduction - Forest Definition - Global Scenario of Forest Resources - Forest Profile of India - Chronological View of Indian Forestry - Forestry in Five Year Plans - Central Board of Forestry - National Forestry Action Programme Chapter 4

Wildlife Resources – Sharad Nema

53-72

Wildlife Definition - Values of Wildlife - Zoogeographic Regions of World Indian Fauna and their Distribution - IUCN Categories of Wild Animals Endangered Wild Animals in India - Protected Areas PART 2: TREE AND FOREST Chapter 5

Tree Growth and Forest – P. Ratha Krishnan

75-92

Introduction - What is Forestry? - Branches of Forestry - Tree Structure and Growth - Classification of Forests - Direct and Indirect Benefits of Forests Impact of Climatic Factors on Trees and Forest - Site Quality, Bioclimate and Microclimate of Forests - Stand Types - Natural and Artificial Regeneration Rotation - Thinning Chapter 6

Forest Ecology – Munesh Kumar, Etefa Guyassa & Antony Jospeh Raj Introduction - Concepts of Ecology - Ecosystem - Forest Ecosystem Succession - Vertical Structure - Forest Community Dynamics - Community Structure Characteristics - Methods of Studying Forest Communities Competitive Exclusion Principle and Ecological Niche Concept

93-104

x Chapter 7

Forestry : Principles and Applications Biodiversity and Conservation Biology – Munesh Kumar & Rainer W. Bussmann

105-128

Introduction - Convention on Biological Diversity - What is Biodiversity? Types of Biodiversity - The Value of Biological Diversity - Threats to Biodiversity - Loss of Biodiversity - Biodiversity Hotspots - Population Diversity - Measurement of Biodiversity - Biodiversity Conservation Strategy In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation - Indian Scenario of Biodiversity Conservation - Medicinal Plants Conservation Chapter 8

Dendrology – S. Gopakumar

129-147

Introduction - History of Plant Classification - International Code of Botanical Nomenclature - Identification of Trees in a Tropical Forest Landscape Botanical Spot Characters and Utilization Aspects of Selected Tree Families Collection and Submission of Herbarium Specimens PART 3: SUSTAINABLE TIMBER PRODUCTION Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Plantation Forestry – Etefa Guyassa & Antony Jospeh Raj Introduction - History of Forest Plantations - Status of Global Planted Forests - Significance of Forest Plantations - Paradigm Shifts in Tropical Forest Plantations - Sustainability of Plantations - Planted Forest Management Constraints in Plantation Forestry Sustainable Forest Management – Manikanda Ramanujam Introduction - What is Forest Management? - Concept of Sustainable Forest Management - Concept of Sustainability - Components of Sustainable Forest Management - Criteria and Indicators of Sustainable Forest Management Indian Initiatives for SFM - Challenges of Sustainable Forest Management Constraints to Sustainable Forest Management - Forest Certification Working Plan – Bheemsingh Mohandaas Introduction - Working Plan Code - Organization - Objective and Scope of Working Plan - Brief History - Contents of Working Plan - Preparation of Working Plan Timber Measurements and Timber Inventory – Antony Jospeh Raj Concept and Scope of Forest Mensuration - Tree Diameter Measurements - Tree Height Measurements - Tree Basal Area and Volume Measurements - Stem/ Log Volume Measurements - Stem Form - Timber Inventory - Point Sampling - Plot Sampling - Stand Measurements - Empirical Height Equations, Volume Equations and Volume Table Forest Pest Management – C.T. Ashok Kumar & Veeresh Kumar Introduction - Natural Forest Pest Control - Silvicultural Control - Silvicultural Practices to reduce Insect Activity - Mechanical and Physical Control Biological Control - Microbial Control - Chemical Control - Classification of Insect Pests - Conclusion Forest Disease Management – S.T. Naik Introduction - Plant Disease - Nursery Diseases - Root Diseases - Heart Rots - Forest Disease Control: General Principles - Diseases of Teak, Sal, Shisham, Khair, Neem, Sandalwood, Casuarina, Eucalyptus and Bamboos

151-163

164-174

175-187

188-213

214-230

231-255

Contents

xi

Chapter 15 Forest Fire Management – K. Sasikumar Introduction - Classification of Forest Fires - Fire Environment - Occurrence of Forest Fire, Its Behaviour and Dynamics - Forest Fire Monitoring in India - Damages caused by Forest Fires - Methods of Extinguishing Forest Fire Method of Protection against Damage by Fire - Fire Terminologies Chapter 16 Problem Soils and Its Management – S. K. Uttam

256-268

269-280

Introduction - Salt Affected/Saline Soils - Acidic Soils - Waterlogged Soils PART 4: FORESTRY CONCEPTS AND TECHNOLOGIES Chapter 17 Tree Seed Technology – P. Masilamani Introduction - Seed Collection - Seed Extraction - Seed Drying - Seed Processing - Seed Dormancy - Pre-Sowing Seed Treatment - Seed Storage Seed Testing- Conclusion Chapter 18 Forest Tree Improvement – Sanjeev Thakur & N.B. Singh Introduction - Elements of Tree Improvement Programme - Species and Provenance Trials - Mass Selection - Plus Tree Selection - Seed Orchards Progeny Testing - Advance Generation Breeding - Genetic Engineering - Clonal Forestry - Achievements in Tree Improvement - Glossary of Terms Chapter 19 Wood Science and Technology – R. Ezhumalai Introduction - Tree Growth - What is Wood? - Wood Structure - Moisture Content of Wood - Wood Destroyers and Preservatives - Abnormal Wood and Wood Seasoning Defects Chapter 20 Clonal Forestry – A.V. Santhoshkumar & Jiji Joseph Introduction - Vegetative Propagation Methods in Forest Trees - Application of Vegetative Propagation in Forestry - Incorporation of Vegetative Propagation Techniques in Tree Breeding - Applications of Clona...