Geology and Geochemistry of Oil and Gas PDF

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DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE 52 geology and geochemistry of oil and gas i DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE 52 Volumes 1-7, 9-18, 19b, 20-29, 31, 34, 35, 37-39 are out of print. 8 Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering 19a Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, I 30 Carbonate Reservoir Cha...

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DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE

52

geology and geochemistry of oil and gas

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DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE

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Volumes 1-7, 9-18, 19b, 20-29, 31, 34, 35, 37-39 are out of print.

8 19a 30 32 33 36 40a 40b 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, I Carbonate Reservoir Characterization: A Geologic-Engineering Analysis, Part I Fluid Mechanics for Petroleum Engineers Petroleum Related Rock Mechanics The Practice of Reservoir Engineering (Revised Edition) Asphaltenes and Asphalts, I Asphaltenes and Asphalts, II Subsidence due to Fluid Withdrawal Casing Design – Theory and Practice Tracers in the Oil Field Carbonate Reservoir Characterization: A Geologic-Engineering Analysis, Part II Thermal Modeling of Petroleum Generation: Theory and Applications Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production PVT and Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids Applied Geothermics for Petroleum Engineers Integrated Flow Modeling Origin and Prediction of Abnormal Formation Pressures Soft Computing and Intelligent Data Analysis in Oil Exploration Geology and Geochemistry of Oil and Gas

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DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE

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geology and geochemistry of oil and gas G.V. Chilingar, L.A. Buryakovsky, N.A. Eremenko & M.V. Gorfunkel

Amsterdam – Boston – Heidelberg – London – New York – Oxford Paris – San Diego – San Francisco – Singapore – Sydney – Tokyo iii

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© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. This work is protected under copyright by Elsevier B.V., and the following terms and conditions apply to its use: Photocopying Single photocopies of single chapters may be made for personal use as allowed by national copyright laws. Permission of the Publisher and payment of a fee is required for all other photocopying, including multiple or systematic copying, copying for advertising or promotional purposes, resale, and all forms of document delivery. Special rates are available for educational institutions that wish to make photocopies for non-profit educational classroom use. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected]. Requests may also be completed on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissions). In the USA, users may clear permissions and make payments through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; phone: (+1) (978) 7508400, fax: (+1) (978) 7504744, and in the UK through the Copyright Licensing Agency Rapid Clearance Service (CLARCS), 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP, UK; phone: (+44) 20 7631 5555; fax: (+44) 20 7631 5500. Other countries may have a local reprographic rights agency for payments. Derivative Works Tables of contents may be reproduced for internal circulation, but permission of the Publisher is required for external resale or distribution of such material. Permission of the Publisher is required for all other derivative works, including compilations and translations. Electronic Storage or Usage Permission of the Publisher is required to store or use electronically any material contained in this work, including any chapter or part of a chapter. Except as outlined above, no part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Publisher. Address permissions requests to: Elsevier's Rights Department, at the fax and e-mail addresses noted above. Notice No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. First edition 2005 ISBN-13: 978-0-444-52053-1 ISBN-10: 0 444 52053 8 ISSN: 0376-7361 (Series) The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). Printed in The Netherlands.

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DEDICATION

This Book is dedicated to His Highness Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al Thani The Emir of the State of Qatar And Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al Missned For their global vision and dedication to democratic reform, education, and valiant efforts in promoting peace in the region

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vii FOREWORD

The geology and geochemistry of petroleum are becoming ever more important as the demand for fossil fuels increases worldwide. We must find new hydrocarbon reserves that are hidden in almost inaccessible areas. Our knowledge of petroleum geology and geochemistry is the best intellectual tool that we have for the neverending search for rich new deposits of hydrocarbons. The geology of the rocks under deep oceans and on continental shelves has become much more important as advances in technology permit drilling in these areas. Developments in petroleum geology and geochemistry, and advances in seismic and well-logging measurements, provide a better understanding of the evolution of subsurface sedimentary deposits and the migration, entrapment, and production of hydrocarbons. This book touches upon the great strides that are being made through electronic innovations in instrumental measurements of geologic and geochemical systems. The structure of the book is actually a balance of four topical sections. The fundamental aspects of petroleum geology, geochemistry, and accumulation, evaluation, and production of subsurface fluids are discussed in the first three sections followed by the fourth section on mathematical modeling of geologic systems. Chapters 1–3 introduce a systematic approach to understanding sedimentary rocks and their role in the evolution and containment of subsurface fluids. This is discussed in relation to the physical conditions of hydrocarbon reserves (e.g., at very high temperatures and pressures). Chapters 4–6 discuss the physical and chemical properties of subsurface waters, crude oils and natural gases. The physical and chemical properties are especially important to production engineering and mathematical simulation because they impact the relative motions of fluids as saturation changes during production: (1) wettability of rocks affects production characteristics and ultimate recovery; (2) relative permeability affects fluid movement to the production wells; (3) density differences between immiscible fluids affect gravity drainage from one part of the reservoir to another as the reservoir fluids are depleted; (4) viscosity of fluids affects the relative mobility of each fluid; and (5) fluid chemistry affects the absorption, ultimate recovery and monetary value of the produced hydrocarbons. Chapters 7–10 discuss the formation and accumulation of crude oils and natural gases: (1) changes in the chemical composition of hydrocarbons that originate from the debris of living plants to form crude oils; (2) the origins of hydrocarbons in different areas of a single reservoir; also, the conditions which determine the distribution of water, oil, and gas in the reservoir; (3) migration of subsurface fluids until they eventually accumulate in isolated geologic traps; and (4) a discussion of the oil traps as a function of sedimentary geology.

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FOREWORD

Chapter 11 explains the analytical and statistical approaches to modern mathematical modeling of both static and dynamic geologic systems. Modeling of static systems (i.e., simulation of the structure and composition of geologic systems) is done regardless of time to develop a basis for geologic exploration and hydrocarbon reserve estimation, whereas dynamic models capture any changes taking place with respect to time for use in studying production and field development. This book is recommended to the geologists, geochemists, petroleum engineers, and graduate university students studying petroleum geology, engineering, and geochemistry. E.C. Donaldson Managing Editor of Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering Wynnewood, Oklahoma

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PREFACE

The progress in the oil and gas industry is related closely to the acceleration of discovery rates, exploration, development, and production of hydrocarbon resources. Exploration, development, and production of hydrocarbon resources must be based on reliable information, which helps to predict subsurface conditions and properties of oil- and gas-bearing formations. Main oil and gas reserves are found in sedimentary basins composed of terrigenous (siliciclastic), carbonate, and, sometimes, volcanic or volcaniclastic rocks. Preservation of high reservoir pressure and good properties of reservoir rocks and seals (caprocks) in these basins depends greatly on their origin and further evolution. The process of sedimentation, and the following processes of diagenesis (i.e., physical, chemical and biochemical processes, which occur in the sediments after sedimentation and through lithification at near-surface temperature and pressure) and catagenesis (or epigenesis) (i.e., physical and chemical processes, which occur in the sedimentary rocks at high temperatures and pressures after lithification and up to metamorphism), cause alterations, which may enable one to predict oil and gas potential. Considering an interest demonstrated by petroleum geologists and reservoir engineers, this book discusses the major theoretical and practical problems of petroleum geology and geochemistry as they are viewed at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. The treatment of the material is non-uniform in the sense that the accepted scientific concepts are treated cursorily, just to maintain the completeness and continuity of the story, whereas the disputable and innovative issues are handled in more detail. The discussion is conducted from a position of the science of petroleum geology, geochemistry, and other related disciplines. For instance, in describing oil-bearing sequences, the main brunt is on depositional environments and such features as reservoir and fluid-sealing properties. A considerable attention is devoted to the transformations within the rock– water–organic matter system of the Earth’s crust with changes in the subsurface temperature and pressure. New reservoir and accumulation types are identified and their exploration/development features are defined. A variety of common reservoir engineering problems can be solved during field development and production by the integration of geological, geochemical, and engineering studies. For example, such studies can identify reservoir compartmentalization, allocate commingled production, identify completion problems (such as tubing leaks or poor casing cementing jobs), predict fluid properties (viscosity, density) prior to production tests, characterize induced fracture geometry, monitor the waterflood process and water encroachment, or explain the causes of produced sludge.

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PREFACE

Discussions in this book are based on the systems approach to the specific geologic systems. Along with this approach, mathematical modeling of the static and dynamic geologic systems is described as well. The use of mathematical methods and computer techniques increases the scope of problems that can be solved on the basis of integrated geological, geophysical, geochemical and engineering information. Mathematical methods using computer processing of the current information accelerate the process of regional and local prediction of oil and gas potential that, in general, increases the economical and geologic efficiency of exploration, development, and production of oil and gas. George V. Chilingar, Leonid A. Buryakovsky

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NOMENCLATURE

Ada At B Bel Bf C Ccarb Ccl D d d dw dact dnom dch dp,ave dp,Me E F Fp,t F0 0 Fp,t G Go Gw DG H Hmax Hr H0 h heff hsh Dhseal Dh I DI g

diffusion–adsorption factor absolute geological age ‘‘benzine’’ (gasoline) content bulk volume elasticity fracture spacing classification carbonate cement content clay cement content depth water density at 3.981C diameter wellbore diameter actual wellbore diameter nominal wellbore diameter pore-channel diameter average pore diameter median pore diameter expectancy formation resistivity factor formation resistivity factor at reservoir conditions resistivity index resistivity index at reservoir conditions geothermal gradient oil pressure gradient in reservoir initial water pressure gradient in seal Gibbs free-energy difference entropy of information maximum entropy relative entropy zero hypothesis thickness effective (net) thickness shale thickness seal thickness accumulation column quantity of information relative GR factor

xii DI ng K Ka k kJ k? ki L L Lc M M m m m N n n O P Pacc Pbreakthrough Ppw Pw.l, layer Pw.u, layer Pwr pi Pc P pe pf pi peff plit pp pr pnorm Dp Q100 q qliq qoil R Rd

NOMENCLATURE

relative NGR factor filtration coefficient pressure-abnormality factor permeability permeability parallel to bedding permeability perpendicular to bedding modeling coefficient of sediment compaction ligroin content length length of capillaries mathematical expectancy molecular mass mass number of parameters in the data matrix cementation exponent number of measurements, tests or observations number of objects in the data matrix saturation exponent object parameter accumulation’s total potential energy breakthrough potential maximum potential of pore water in seal water potential of the lower layer water potential of the upper layer water potential in reservoir probability capillary pressure pressure external pressure, total overburden pressure formation pressure internal pressure, pore-fluid pressure effective (grain-to-grain) pressure lithostatic (overburden) pressure pore pressure reservoir pressure normalized pressure pressure differential cation-exchange capacity per 100 g of rock volumetric flow rate liquid production rate oil production rate content of resins and asphaltenes rate of sedimentation

NOMENCLATURE

R(z) R Ra Ra(AO) Rcr Rg,r Roil Ro,r Rsh Rt Rt,min Rw Ro Rm Rmf RIL r r rc So So/g So,r Sw Sw,r Scarb Ssort Ssh Sss sb sg sp shf SG T DT t ta U DU SP V Vc VAHFP Velast Vrelax

vertical water density change electric resistivity apparent resistivity apparent resistivity from lateral sonde of AO size cut-off (critical) resistivity of oil-saturated reservoir resistivity of gas-saturated reservoir oil resistivity resistivity of oil-saturated reservoir shale resistivity true resistivity of rock minimum true resistivity water resistivity resistivity of water-saturated reservoir drilling-mud resistivity mud-filtrate resistivity resistivity from induction log correlation coefficient radius radius of capillaries oil saturation oil/gas saturation residual oil saturation water saturation residual water saturation homogeneity of carbonates sorting factor sorting of shales sorting of sandstones specific surface area of pore space per unit of bulk volume specific surface area of pore space per unit of grain volume specific surface area of pore space per unit of pore volume shape factor for pores specific gravity temperature interval transit time time probability index at confidence level a relative change in volume of sediments relative SP factor volume volume of capillaries rate of AHFP formation rate of creation of elastic stress rate of stress relaxation

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NOMENCLATURE

Vs v vl vR zo a aSP b bc g go gw Zcl Zp Zsh Zr l m n s s sR sr t tw f f0 feff fsh wsh o So S

seismic velocity specific volume variation of anisotropy variation of resistivity altitude of comparison surface with equal normalized pressure level of significance (confidence level) SP reduction factor modulus of elasticity irreversible compaction factor (compressibility factor) density oil density water density relative clay content in rock pore-pressure gradient pore-pressure gradient in shales formation-pressure gradient in reservoir rocks anisotropy coefficient dynamic viscosity kinematic viscosity stress; tension standard deviation, or mean square error standard deviation of resistivity standard deviation of correlation coefficient electrical tortuosity of pore channels thickness of pore-water film porosity ‘‘residual’’ porosity effective porosity shale porosity relative content of argillaceous (shale) beds frequency or probability cumulative frequency or cumulative probability macroscopic cross-section of thermal neutron capture (absorption)

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ABBREVIATIONS

AHFP ALFP bbl BCF BCM BPD/bpd CFD/cfd CMD/cmd FSU GKZ GOC GOR GWC HC MBPD/Mbpd MCFD/Mcfd MCMD/Mcmd MD MMBPD/MMbpd MMCFD/MMcfd MMCMD/MMcmd MMT MSE MTD OWC PTD RF SEM TCF TD TD TOC TPD/tpd TVD

abnormally high formation pressure abnormally low formation pressure barrels billion cubic feet billion cubic meters barrels per day cubic feet per day cubic meters per day Former Soviet Union State Committee on Reserves (in FSU and RF) gas–oil contact gas/oil ratio gas–water contact hydrocarbons thousand barrels per day thousand cubic feet per day thousand cubic meters per day measured depth million barrels per day million cubic feet per day million cubic meters per day million tons mean square error thousand tons per day oil–water contact proposed total depth Russian Federation scanning electron microscope trillion cubic feet tons per day total depth total organic carbon tons per day true vertical depth

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CONTENTS

Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 1 SYSTEMS APPROACH IN SCIENCE. . . . . Natural systems and their classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks, water, organic matter, and gases as a specific natural Systems approach in petroleum geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 2 OIL AND GAS-BEARING ROCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of oil- and gas-bearing rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reservoir rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....