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Gracey’s Meat Hygiene This book is dedicated to the memory of two great veterinarians Dr Joseph Forde Gracey (1918–2001) and Dr James Andrew Storrar (1947–2006) Gracey’s Meat Hygiene Eleventh Edition Edited by David S. Collins MVB, DVPH(MH), MRCVS Robert J. Huey TD, MVB, DVPH(MH), MRCVS This edition...

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Gracey’s Meat Hygiene

This book is dedicated to the memory of two great veterinarians Dr Joseph Forde Gracey (1918–2001) and Dr James Andrew Storrar (1947–2006)

Gracey’s Meat Hygiene Eleventh Edition Edited by David S. Collins MVB, DVPH(MH), MRCVS

Robert J. Huey TD, MVB, DVPH(MH), MRCVS

This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 1606 Golden Aspen Drive, Suites 103 and 104, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting a specific method, diagnosis, or treatment by health science practitioners for any particular patient. The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gracey’s meat hygiene / edited by D.S. Collins, R.J. Huey. – Eleventh edition. p. ; cm. Meat hygiene Preceded by Meat hygiene / J.F. Gracey, D.S. Collins, R.J. Huey. 10th ed. c1999. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-65002-8 (cloth) I. Collins, D.S. (David S.), editor. II. Huey, R.J. (Robert J.), editor. III. Gracey, J.F. Meat hygiene. Preceded by (work): IV. Title: Meat hygiene. [DNLM: 1. Meat. 2. Food Inspection. 3. Food Safety. 4. Meat-Packing Industry. 5. Quality Control. WA 707] RA602.M4 363.19′29–dc23 2014016565 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover images: Poultry top left: iStock © EEI_Tony; Poultry top right: iStock © ly-ly; Sheep centre right: Reproduced with permission of Ronald Siddle; Bull calves bottom: Reproduced with permission of David S. Collins; All other images: Reproduced with permission of Graham Fallows Cover design by hisandhersdesign Set in 10.5/12.5pt Minion by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

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2015

Contents

Contributors

xi

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgements

xv

1

The food animals Dietary factors World livestock production UK meat plants and throughputs Cattle Breeds Systems of beef production Growth promoters Definitions Sheep Definitions Pigs Pig breeds Pig breeds in the United Kingdom Pig production Pig meat production Glossary of terms Additional facts Goats Poultry Definitions Rabbits Deer Handling of deer References Further reading Form animal welfare council

1 2 3 4 4 4 6 7 7 7 9 10 10 11 11 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 16 17 17 17 17

2

Anatomy Descriptive terms Osteology and arthrology Bones Digestive system Tongue Stomach Mucous membranes Intestines Liver Pancreas (gut sweetbread) Respiratory system

19 19 19 19 21 21 22 22 23 24 25 26

Lungs Pluck Circulatory system (heart, arteries, capillaries and veins) Heart Portal circulation Spleen (melt) Lymphatic system Haemal lymph nodes Lymph nodes of the ox Nodes of the head and neck Nodes of the chest and forequarter Nodes of the abdomen and hindquarter Lymph nodes of the pig Head and neck Other nodes Urogenital system Urinary organs Genital organs Kidney Reproductive system Uterus Udder Endocrine system Thymus Adrenal (suprarenal) bodies Testicles (testes) Collection and yield of glands Skin Horns Muscular system Connective tissue Fat Determination of age by dentition Teeth Determination of sex Cattle Sheep Pigs Horse and ox differentiation Debasement of food (adulteration and substitution) Food tampering References Further reading

26 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 34 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 39 40 41 41 41 43 43 43 v

vi Contents

3

4

Meat establishment construction and equipment Site Environmental statement Submission of plans Area size Facilities Equipment design Pest control Small abattoir units Lairage Cattle lairage Sheep lairage Pig lairage Deer lairage Clipping or cleaning of livestock Manure disposal Slaughterhall Stunning area Bleeding area Cattle carcase dressing On-the-rail dressing Sheep slaughterhall Pig slaughterhall Singeing and scraping Refrigeration accommodation Detained meat room Condemned meat room Hide and skin store Gut and tripe room Red offal room The edible fat room Cutting rooms Equipment wash Fresh meat dispatch area Vehicle washing General amenities for personnel Veterinary office Treatment of effluent Pollution parameters Treatment Preliminary treatment: Screening, solids and grit removal Secondary treatment Further reading Preservation of meat Physical changes in stored meat Chemical changes in stored meat Water activity or water availability (aw ) Meat curing Salt Ingredients used in curing

45 45 45 46 46 47 50 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 53 53 53 54 54 55 56 57 58 58 59 60 60 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 62 63 63 63 64 65 67 67 68 68 68 68 69

5

Production of bacon and ham Cutting Application of the pickle Production of cooked hams Traditional dry-cured bacon Alternative dry cure Smoking Common defects in cured meat Micro-organisms on cured product Refrigeration Mechanical refrigeration Chilling of meat Freezing of meat Freeze-drying or lyophilisation Storage of fresh meat Vacuum packing Modified atmosphere packing Refrigerated meat transport and storage Changes in frozen meat ‘Weeping’ or ‘drip’ Durability of frozen meat Effect of freezing on pathogenic micro-organisms and parasites Heat: Thermal processing Traditional canning methodology Treatment of food to be canned Canning operations Canning of meats Foods packed in glass Spoilage in canned foods Types of spoilage The public health aspect of canned foods Other methods of meat preservation Antioxidants Preservatives Irradiation Infrared radiation Ultraviolet radiation Ionising radiation High pressure References Further reading

69 70 70 71 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 73 75 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 78

Plant sanitation Reasons for cleaning and disinfecting plant ‘Scotoma effect’ or ‘factory-blindness’ The chemistry of cleaning The soil The substrate: Materials of construction Energies of cleaning Chemical and physical reactions of cleaning

89

78 78 79 79 80 82 82 82 83 85 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 87 87 88

89 90 90 91 91 92 92

Contents vii

6

95 95 95 97 97 98 98 98 99 100 100

Detergents: Design and choice Principles of disinfection Biocidal active components Disinfectants: Design and choice Hygiene equipment and application methods Manual cleaning Foam cleaning Foam and disinfectant application equipment Gels Spray Fogging Knife and cutting tool disinfection during processing Machine washing Cleaning-in-place (CIP) Rinse systems Contamination and re-contamination Air Water People Surfaces Cleaning procedures The cleaning sequence Monitoring of hygiene Training Safety Effluent and external odour control Conclusion Note References

100 102 102 104 105 105 106 106 106 106 106 108 110 110 110 111 111 112

From farm to slaughter Production of clean, healthy livestock Clean livestock Healthy livestock Safe use of animal medicines Safe disposal of animal waste Animal welfare on the farm Assessment of an animal’s welfare Transportation of livestock Loading and unloading The journey to slaughter EU transport legislation Protection during transport Means of transport Space allowances Duties of transporters Feed, water and rest periods Treatment of sick animals Travel documentation Loss of weight during transport Transport mortality Lairage construction

113 113 115 117 117 117 119 119 122 122 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 124 124 124 125 126

7

Animal husbandry in the lairage Moving animals within the lairage Social stress Watering Fasting Resting of animals prior to slaughter Pre-slaughter handling and meat quality Stress and the animal Stress and meat quality Pre-slaughter feeding of sugars Traumatic injury Time of bruising Rough handling Presence of horns Temperament Stunning box design Mixing of animals Breed Incentives and education References Further reading

127 127 128 128 128 129 129 129 130 131 131 131 132 132 132 132 133 133 133 133 134

Humane slaughter Pre-slaughter handling/restraint Cattle movement and restraint Pig movement and restraint The slaughtering process Assessment of unconsciousness at slaughter Methods of stunning Percussive stunning Head sites for percussive stunning Water jet stunning Carbon dioxide and other gas mixtures Electrical stunning Effect of stunning on meat quality Slaughter of minor species Slaughter of deer Slaughter of ostriches Slaughter of rabbits Other methods of slaughter Slaughter of poultry Electrical stunning of poultry Assessment of unconsciousness in electrical water bath stunned poultry Stunning/killing poultry with controlled atmospheres Percussive stunning of poultry Other methods of slaughter Effects of stunning on poultry meat quality Pithing Bleeding Cattle

135 136 136 137 137 137 138 138 140 142 142 144 146 146 146 147 147 147 148 148 149 149 150 150 150 150 151 151

viii Contents

Sheep Pigs Efficiency of bleeding Slaughter without pre-stunning Shechita – Jewish religious slaughter Muslim methods of slaughter Slaughter of poultry without stunning References Further reading 8

151 152 153 153 153 156 157 157 158

Meat hygiene practice 159 Meat and animal by-products 159 Hygienic production 159 Sources of contamination 159 Outer integument – hide, hair, fleece or skin 159 Gastrointestinal tract 160 Stunning and sticking 160 Physical contact with structures 160 Operatives 160 Equipment and utensils 161 The slaughter hall environment 161 Vermin and pests 161 Chemical contamination 162 Methods of reducing contamination 162 Dealing with the dirty animal 162 Clipping cattle on line 163 Protecting the meat from the worker 163 Good hygiene practice 165 Layout and flow lines 167 Dressing techniques – Removal of hide/fleece/hair 167 Preventing contamination from the gastrointestinal tract 170 Post-slaughter decontamination 172 Water 172 Trimming 173 Chemical treatments 173 Bacteriophages 174 Ultraviolet and pulsed high-intensity light 174 Outputs of the slaughterhouse 174 Treatment of edible co-products 175 Fats 175 Edible fat rendering 176 Stomach and intestines 176 Bones 177 Hides and skins 177 Animal by-products 178 Category 1 178 Category 2 179 Category 3 (can be used for pet food) 180 Materials for technical uses 181 Hygiene requirements for animal by-product processing establishments 183

9

Rendering processes References

183 184

Meat inspection protocols The case for change The holistic approach Integrated Food Safety Assurance Farm to fork Food chain information Ante-mortem inspection Ante-mortem inspection procedure in the slaughter establishment Practical ante-mortem procedure Emergency slaughter animals Emergency slaughter: The decision on farm Emergency slaughter: The decision at the slaughter establishment Post-mortem inspection Facilities for post-mortem inspection Carcase identification and traceability Traditional post-mortem inspection Traditional post-mortem inspection of cattle Traditional post-mortem inspection of calves Traditional post-mortem inspection of sheep and goats Traditional post-mortem inspection of pigs Traditional post-mortem inspection of equines Traditional post-mortem inspection of poultry Decisions at post-mortem examination Common post-mortem findings Abscesses Omphalophlebitis Arthritis Oedema Pneumonia and pleurisy Endocarditis Pericarditis Pyelonephritis Bruising Pigmentation Haematogenous pigments Bile pigments Porphyrin Lipofuscin (‘wear-and-tear pigment’, pigment of brown atrophy, lipochrome, haemofuscin) Xanthosis (xanthomatosis, osteohaematochromatosis, brown atrophy) Tumours

185 185 187 187 187 187 188 189 190 191 191 192 192 192 193 194 194 196 196 196 197 197 198 203 203 204 204 204 205 206 207 207 208 208 209 209 210 211 211 211

Contents ix

Classes of tumours Causes of tumours Effect on host Nomenclature of neoplasms Judgement of neoplasia Poor condition/emaciation Contamination Parasitic conditions Ascaris suum Echinococcus granulosus: Hydatidosis and hydatid cyst Taenia hydatigena (known as Cysticercus tenuicollis in larval stage) Taenia ovis (previously known as Cysticercus ovis) Fasciola hepatica: Liver fluke Paramphistomiasis Sarcocystis Courses of action Utilisation of post-mortem data Control of hygienic production Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) Implementation of an HACCP system Worldwide food safety standards References Further reading 10

Poultry production, slaughter and inspection Production of poultry Poultry feedingstuffs Poultry flock health Catching and crating Reception and unloading Pre-slaughter inspection Shackling Stunning and slaughter Scalding and defeathering Defeathering Evisceration Chilling Ante-mortem health inspection Post-mortem inspection in the plant Decision of the official veterinarian at the post-mortem inspection General contamination Guidelines on trimming poultry Coliform infections Salmonellosis Campylobacteriosis Chlamydiosis (psittacosis/ornithosis) Miscellaneous conditions Dead on arrival

212 212 212 212 213 213 215 215 215 215 216 216 216 216 216 217 218 218 11 219 219 221 222 222

223 223 225 226 226 227 228 228 229 230 231 232 235 237 240 241 242 242 243 243 244 245 245 245

12

Bruising and fractures Breast blisters and hock burn Ascites Slaughter liver or cholangiohepatitis Fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome (FLHS) Vices Contamination Decomposition Barking Diseases of the female reproductive system Oregon disease Over-scald Fevered carcases Septicaemia Insufficient bleeding Emaciation Viscera absent References Further reading

245 246 246 246

Exotic meat production Rabbits Slaughter Inspection Post-mortem judgements in rabbit meat inspection Zoonoses Guidelines on contamination, missing viscera and trimming Farmed deer Handling and slaughter Park deer Wild deer Killing Ostriches Restraint Stunning Dressing Changes after slaughter Commercial squab production Further reading

249 249 249 250

Food poisoning and meat microbiology Part 1: Food poisoning Types of food poisoning Surveillance of food poisoning Laboratory reports of enteric infections Outbreak surveillance General considerations Food-borne pathogens Part 2: Meat microbiology Bacteriological examination of carcases

246 246 247 247 247 247 247 247 247 247 247 247 247 248 248

250 251 252 252 252 254 254 254 255 256 256 256 257 257 257

259 259 259 259 260 261 261 261 267 267

x

Contents

Part 3: Meat decomposition and spoilage Assessment of decomposition Further reading 13

Controls on veterinary drug residues in the European Union Legal framework Licensed veterinary medicines Hormones and ß-Agonists Prohibited compounds Unauthorised and unlicensed compounds Regulatory limits: MRLs, MRPLs and RPAs The National Residue Control Plan in EU member states Compound groups Sampling levels for each species Relationship between species and substance to be analysed Testing procedures and performance characteristics Testing procedures CCα and CCβ Sampling of imported food Legal basis for sampling of imports from third countries Frequency of sampling of imports from third countries Interpretation of non-compliant results The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) Legal basis and description of the RASFF RASFF notification types Notification basis

271 277 278

279 279 279 280 280 281 281 282 282 282 283 284 284 285 285 285 285 285 285 285 286 286

Action taken Distribution status Actions taken following infringements Analytical methods: Technical aspects Method specificity Performance characteristics Method validation Proficiency testing References 14

Health and safety in meat processing Accident statistics UK legislation General duties Key topics requiring risk assessment Being struck by hand tools including knives Musculoskeletal disorders Slips, trips and falls Contact with machinery Transport Falls from a height Substances/microorganisms Zoonoses Specific control measures for zoonoses Animals Noise Cold environment General requirements References Index

286 286 286 287 287 288 288 289 289

291 291 291 292 293 293 294 298 298 301 301 302 303 303 310 310 311 312 316 319

Contributors

David S Collins, MRCVS Veterinarian, Belfast, UK Robert J Huey Chief Veterinary Officer Department of Agriculture and Rural Development Veterinary Service Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK Glenn Kennedy Veterinary Sciences Division Agi-Food and Biosciences Institute Belfast, UK

Rosemary Lee Department of Agriculture and Rural Development Northern Ireland, UK Chris Loughney Country Manager UK-IE Ecolab Food and Beverage Division Northwich, Cheshire, UK Malcolm J Taylor, BSc(Hons), MSc Senior Scientific Officer Food Science Branch Agri-F...