HSC Ancient - Julio-Claudians PDF

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Course notes for ancient period topic: Julio-Claudians...

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1. Development of the principate Impact of the death of Augustus -

Augustus ruled rome for over forty years, until his death in AD 14. He is remembered for restoring order and discipline after a long period of bitter civil war: “I found a city of bricks and left it one of marble.” Augustus - As founder of the principate, Augustus had adapted republican institutions to suit his own personal system of government: “the power of both of the people and of the senate was wholly transferred into the hands of augustus, and it was from this time that a monarchy, strictly speaking, was established.” Cassius. - He appointed the senators and officials who shared government with him. They in turn, conferred honour and power unto him through roles such as pontifex maximus, consul etc. - Augustus had determined the senate’s composition and regulated it’s proceedings. Syme, claims that the senate had been corrupted and debased by Augustus and had become subservient. - Augustus had determined the senate’s composition and regulated it’s proceedings. - He gradually took away from the senate many of it’s powers to make new laws and spend public money. - Augustus was concerned with the transmission of his family’s power from one generation to the next. “... every emperor until AD 476 took his name” Murdoch. - After his death he was given the ultimate honour of becoming a god Issues of Augustus - As augustus secured his position in rome, he constantly declared he’d restored rome to a republic. If augustus had in fact restored the republic, then in a republic there are no hereditary titles or positions. - To announce a successor would imply a monarchy/dictatorship not a republic. - Time and time again he pinned his hopes on an heir of the Julian bloodline. Augustus did not have sons to either of his wives. His only hope of this was through his daughter Julia

Changing role of the princeps Tiberius 14AD - 37AD -

Suetonius claims that Augustus adopted Tiberius as his heir in the national interest, because he was the only general capable of defending Rome against her enemies. Tiberius became emperor at the age of fifty-five after a long and successful military career.

“... tiberius was the victim of Augustus.” (Syme) It is difficult to gain a clear picture of the character of Tiberius from the primary sources as most of them are so clearly biased against him. - Tacitus writes his history with a moral purpose, to record the wickedness of the emperors. He despises the principate in general and Tiberius in particular. - Suetonius’ view is much better, portraying Tiberius as a miserly and despised old man. Both Suetonius and Tacitus as well as the moderns record Tiberius’ reluctance to become Emperor: “No man showed less eagerness for empire” (Massie) - Throughout his career, he conscientiously carried out the duties of his political appointments and for the last few years tiberius had been in effect governing the Empire, so he knew what the job involved. - He was fifty-five years old and clearly the greatest general of his time. - Considering his age and unparalleled service, Tiberius’s claim that he did not feel himself capable of the whole burden of government is reasonable. - He knew he was not Augustus’ first choice of the position of Emperor (Suetonius)

Tiberius’ administration Most sources agree that Tiberius was a most capable administrator of Rome and the Empire: “Fair play has now precedence over influence, and merit over ambition…” (Velleius) His reign was marked by: - Cooperation between the princeps and the senate - Restraint in the exercise of power - Careful and effective administration of rome and the empire - Control of the army

Tiberius and the Senate Tacitus and Cassius Dio were senators and so they had access to government archives. They all acknowledge that there was cooperation between Tiberius and the senate and that he showed respect and modesty by: - Refusing some titles of honour offered to him by the senate - Declining offers of divine honours for himself and his mother - Observing traditional behaviour in the senate house - Encouraging freedom of expression (instances where senate voted against Tiberius). - Tiberius must have felt the conflict between his duty to carry out the instructions and policies of Augustus and his genuine desire to foster republican ideals. - He had high, often unrealistic expectations of the senate, hence his comment that they were “men fit to be slaves” (Tacitus)

The treason trials Ancient writers create an impression of Tiberius as a sinister and bloodthirsty tyrant who used the treason law to kill off all who opposed or offended him:

“Every crime became a capital one, even the utterance of a few careless words.” (Suetonius) - Under the empire, the princeps was the embodiment of the state, and treason came to be interpreted as treachery or insult against the princeps. - The charge of maiestas (treason) could be initiated by private citizens who would be given one-quarter of their victim’s property if prosecution was successful. - This created fear and unrest. Of the eighty-six maiestas proceeded under Tiberius there were only 5 executions under Tiberius’ personal order. It has been described as “an odious system destructive of the very fabric of society” (Dudley)

Tiberius and the people -

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He was the least sensational of the julio-claudian emperors: no great wars of conquest, massive public works, or extravagant games or festivals. He favoured diplomatic rather than military solutions because he was more interested in saving his troops than in pursuing personal glory on the battlefield. Pax Romana (roman peace) really began under Tiberius’ reign. He appointed the city prefect who was responsible for keeping law and order in the city. Did not seek personal glory through public works. He did not add his own name to them, and always acknowledged the original builder. In the provinces, tiberius supervised the construction of utilitarian projects such as roads, bridges and aqueducts. Concerned with order and discipline. Disliked games and gladiatorial shows. Introduced regulations to limit the size of the games, which the people did not like. In AD 19, when there was a shortage of corn and a consequent price rise, he fixed the price at a level the people could afford, and made up the difference himself to the corn merchants. The average citizen living under the rule of Tiberius was not pampered with frequent gifts of bread or circuses, they could, however, travel in safety throughout italy and the provinces and live securely under the rule of law.

Caligula 37-41 AD -

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Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus (Caligula) Member of the Julian family As a small child, Caligula was dressed in a miniature uniform (hence his nickname) and paraded as a mascot for the troops. Caligula himself disliked the appellation, so much so that coins and inscriptions that survive from the era bear the name ‘Gaius’ By modern standards, his behaviour was insane.

Accession -

Tiberius’ will gave no clear direction, designating caligula and Gemellus as joint heirs. The senate declared the will null and void, proclaiming caligula as ‘princeps’. Caligula had three main claims to the principate:

- He was popular with the army - He was of Julian blood - There were no other suitable candidates - Different groups in rome at the time viewed Caligula’s accession differently: “the populace… looked forward to the son of Germanicus” (Balsdon)

The early months -

Reduced taxes Provided entertainment such as races and gladiatorial contests for the populace Halted treason trials Ended censorship of many historical works Pledged to the senate a policy of cooperation

Caligula’s illness -

Fell seriously ill in 37AD Some ancient writers refer to it as ‘brain fever’ It has been widely accepted that this illness coincided with a transformation in Caligula’s personality and behaviour. The fate of two romans who made pledges to the gods for Caligula’s recovery provides an insight into Caligula’s state of mind on his recovery. The first man promised to forfeit his own life, while the second offered to become a gladiator should the emperor survive. Caligula was unimpressed by these gestures and took pleasure in insisting each man honour his promise.

Abuses of power -

37-38 saw the forced suicide of four people in caligula’s reign of terror Caligula decided that Gemellus, who was included in Tiberius’ will, had to be removed. The fact that an emperor could simply order one of his subjects to die by his own hand demonstrated the political, social and religious power that he held. The weakness of the office created by Augustus was that it could fall into the hands of a flawed personality.

Administration -

Caligula’s administration of rome was inefficient and erratic (Bruce Dennett) He frequently tried to undermine and belittle the authority of the Senate, while extending and altering the nature of the office he had inherited. Eg. caligula’s desire to have his horse made a member of the senate (Suetonius) - Parties, displays and games drained the treasury, gradually undermining the sound financial footing secured for the empire under augustus and tiberius “He outspent the wits and inventions of all the prodigal spendthrifts that ever were” (Suetonius) - Old taxes were increased and new ones introduced. - The resumption of treason trials, designed to place at Caligula’s disposal the confiscated wealth of those found guilty, replenished his finances but made him unpopular.

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Fortunately, augustus and tiberius had created an imperial framework solid enough to withstand at least four years of caligula. Ancient writers are very harsh in their judgement of caligula’s leadership of his military expedition. Suetonius writes that he ordered his troops to collect seashells as art of his prize as conqueror. This however could be an example of the desire of suetonius to use any means to discredit and emperor they loathed.

Caligula’s death -

Caligula and his wife and daughter were murdered in 41 AD The populace greeted his death with relief and rejoicing.

Claudius 41 - 54 AD History tend to support the more generous view of Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus as he was able to: - Restore calm and establish stable government - Expand the civil service - Reestablish the finances of the empire - Expand the boundaries of the empire - Assimilate the conquered peoples into the populace of the empire - Increase the power of the principate Cassius Dio and Suetonius present Claudius as a weakling, easy manipulated and as a man with the desire for cruelty. However, the limited remains of Claudius’ own work, such as a speech delivered in AD 48 to new members of the Senate, give the image of a capable and thoughtful man.

Background and accession -

Claudius’ background reveals an education and upbringing that would make him wellqualified to rule in Rome. - He suffered from an illness, a kind of palsy that left him with an uncontrollable stammer, a tendency to dribble and a constant twitch of the head - Widely read in roman history and tradition. - Had access to the world of power through a range of high offices eg. consul in AD 37 - While claudius did not exercise any real power until being emperor, he had an ideal opportunity to observe the workings of government at first hand: “His own utterances… show that he possessed sound practical judgement and no little political wisdom.” (Scramuzza) - The conviction of many that he was a fool meant that he was not perceived as a genuine threat by Caligula and others - Suetonius tells us how Claudius was found hiding behind a curtain in the palace on the night of Caligula’s assassination. - Claudius was proclaimed “emperor… by an extraordinary accident” (suetonius)

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Elected unconstitutionally by the praetorian guard that found him, even though they were not allowed to do so. The senate were compelled reluctantly to accept the military’s nomination because they did not have sufficient power to resist.

Early months -

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Sought the allegiance of the Julians by publicly praising Augustus. Executed Caligula’s assassin. No one wept for caligula, but his murderers had to be dealt with to avoid setting a dangerous precedent. While the execution of the assassin would win him support from the Julians, it could antagonise the praetorian guard, so he awarded them one of the most generous bonuses in Rome’s history. Although it bought their loyalty in the short term it established a dangerous precedent. He won the support of the senate by abolishing treason trials and the taxes imposed by Caligula.

Administration -

Claudius created new offices of state He centralised and streamlined government business, increasing it’s efficiency. This bureaucratic reform gave claudius greater access than the senate to information about affairs of state, which increased the power and prestige of the princeps, and undermined the authority of the senate - Inefficient separate treasuries were combined to form a single centralised public treasury. This placed most of the empire’s finances firmly in the Emperor’s hands. Historians who see claudius as an emerging tyrant point to these reforms as a deliberate attempt to destroy the authority of the senate - Although these reforms were major, they were undertaken gradually to lessen the apparent affront to the senate and to avoid alarming the populace These reforms negate claims that claudius was incapable: “The cumulative judgement of antiquity agrees in portraying him as a fool and a baneful influence on the development of the empire” (Scramuzza)

Achievements included: -

Subsidising ship owners and builders to ensure that sufficient corn could be imported to feed Rome’s growing population - Rebuilding Rome’s port at Ostia: “on the occasion of a severe famine he considered the problem of providing an abundant foodsupply… for all time.” (Cassius Dio) - Renewing rome’s water supply - Introducing more humane laws for the treatment of slaves

Final years -

Agrippina convinced Claudius to adopt her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (Nero) as his own and name him successor. When claudius died in 54 he was mourned, especially in the provinces Proclaimed a god in rome.

Evaluation -

Some argue he permitted too much power into the hands of his wives agrippina and messalina: “Claudius fell so deeply under the influence of… wives that he seemed to be their servant rather than their emperor” (suetonius, claudius, 28-29) - By modern standards, Claudius probably was bloodthirsty - He enjoyed the games and gladiatorial contests, and delt ruthlessly with conspiracies. The bloodlust of an ancient Roman, however, cannot be fairly judged by modern standards. “He not only had remarkable knowledge of the problems of government, but he brought a new sense of responsibility to the throne...” (Scramuzza)

Nero 54 - 68 AD Lucius domitius ahenobarbus born in 37 AD - It was Agrippina's mission in life to secure the position of emperor for her son. - In 54, nero was proclaimed emperor - The new emperor made a favourable impression -

Nero realised that Claudius’ son, britannicus, was a threat to him and decided to have him killed. - Suetonius says that nero summed her and beat her until she promised the fastestworking concoction possible. - Tacitus claims that several days before the murder, Nero had visited his stepbrother and committed homosexual acts upon him. “Such was this hurried murder of the last of the claudians, physically defiled, then poisoned…”

Quinquennium Neronis -

Nero did not fit the mould of emperor: he painted, sculpted, wrote poetry, took singing lessons. - Began his reign with solemn promise that the abuses of the past would be forgotten. - Tried to remember everyone's names out of respect - The senate would be given every freedom, the courts would be reformed and peace would prevail in the emperor: “in an attempt to demonstrate his virtuous intentions, nero had promised to model his rule on augustan principles.” (nigel irvine)

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As well, he attempted to restrict the extravagance of wealthy roman society. Public feats were to consist of a fixed number of courses and inns were restricted to selling only cold snacks, not cooked meals He encouraged the arts, holding competitions and awarding prizes for poetry and rhetoric

Later Administration -

Nero wished to free himself of the role of ‘puppet king’. If the emperor’s mother drowned at sea it could hardly be attributed to Nero Miraculously, agrippina escaped without injury A detachment of marines was sent to agrippina’s villa to kill her. Nero visited his mother’s corpse and with a cup of wine in his hand, discussed the good and bad points of her body. She was cremated without a ceremony and her ashes lie in an unmarked grave (Tacitus) - Agrippina had been warned twenty-two years earlier that her son would be responsible for her death to which she replied; “let him kill me - provided he becomes emperor” (tacitus, annals, 14.7) - It was four years after agrippina’s death that nero made any attempt to divorce octavia - The daughter of the ‘divine augustus’ was still immensely popular with the people and any attempt to replace her might not be tolerated. - He accused her of maiestas. - As a result, the senate exiled octavia and a few days after her arrival she was murdered by her guards. Her head was sent back to rome as a wedding gift for poppaea sabina, nero’s new lover and wife - Rumours about nero were so persistent that some of them must have been true: “Nero’s personal life became the focus of much gossip” (nigel irvine) - Unusual sexual practices, mock marriage to a freedman, his attraction to sporus, whom he dressed as his bride and treated in public as his wife, parties held in the imperial palace where Nero crawled around on the floor, dressed only in the skin of some wild beat, performing indecent acts upon willing victims. - To conservative romans, it was all a little too Greek (Nigel Irvine)

‘Great Fire of AD 64’ -

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Apparently the fire started in or near the circus maximus. Suetonius firmly places the blame on Nero While it seems unlikely he was responsible for the fire, he referred to it as a good thing, and his plan for a grand new palace would have him placed under suspicion. Nor would it be unusual for such a disaster to be seen as a dramatic background in which an artist could take up his lyre and compose an epic sonnet about ‘the fall of troy’ which is what nero did. To the ordinary people who had lost their entire worldly goods, it was neither poetic nor romantic

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He helped the homeless by opening the temples, the campus martius and his own gardens to them so that they had a place to camp. Emergency supplies of food were shipped to the city from ostia, a relief fund was set up to which the emperor gave generously from his own purse. He diverted the blame to the christians. Both Tacitus, and suetonius, writing almost half a century later, shared this confusion about who Christians were. Tacitus felt that the christians deserved their punishments.

Decline of Nero -

Near the end of 66, nero left rome for his long awaited visit to Greece. The greeks postponed the olympic games to coincide with his visit, and scheduled events so he could appear in all of them. The emperor was awarded many first prizes in greece, many of which he received without actually entering the competition He rewarded the whole province with an exemption from taxation He returned even more self-obsessed On the night of june 8 68 AD, Nero was killed. The senate had condemned him in his absence to be put to death. With the sound of approaching horses, nero ordered his scribe to...