HSC Course Studies of Religion 1 PDF

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BAND 6 STUDIES OF RELIGION 1 HSC COMPLETE NOTES (w. examples)
Topic 1: Religion and Belief Systems in Australia post-1945
Depth Study 1: Islam
Depth Study 2: Christianity

Organised according to the syllabus.


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HSC Course: Studies of Religion 1 Complete Study Notes

HSC Studies of Religion 1

HSC Topic 1: Religion and Belief Systems in Australia post-1945 A. Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities 1.1 Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming ●

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The Dreaming: complex system of Aboriginal Spirituality; an eternal, endless cycle of metaphysical existence where humankind, land and animals are completely dependent on one another for their physical, emotional and spiritual wellbeing. Dreaming is the basis of all aspects of life, expressed tangibly through complex network of relationships, right and obligations within Aboriginal societies.

1.1.1. Kinship ● ●

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Kinship: highly sophisticated network of relationships that determines relationships between clans. Governs interactions between clans, establishes components of belonging and obligations and responsibilities of the people within the clan. ○ Elder Bob Randall: “The Completeness of the Oneness.” - ‘kanyani’ (kinship) Central to way culture is passed on and society is organised. Extended to all living things. Aboriginal people grow up with ‘mental map’ of relationships within whole society; Helps people understand place/role in society and the Dreaming, which then determines their relationships with others. Major influence on community’s sense of identity and spirituality with the Dreaming, land and each other Each k  in relationship has specific rules about respect and duties to develop a rich social and personal life, allowing each member to be aware that they are part of a greater whole.

Kinship and the Dreaming ●

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Kinship provides framework for living, defined by Dreaming; Dreaming determines kinship ties through: ○ Assigning responsibility to transmit Dreaming through the generations ○ Providing social structure maintained since the Dreaming ○ Defining temporal and spiritual identity All forms of social interactions are determined by complicated kinship laws. All Aboriginals belong to a tribe; Tribe divided into clan groups based on family grouping; Clans further divided into skin groups or moieties. Aboriginals inherit ceremonial/territorial rights/responsibilities through the kinship system.

1.1.2. Ceremonial Life ● ●

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Essential part of determining Aboriginal spirituality; passes down community’s traditions and beliefs. Through ceremonies, which celebrate aspects of Dreaming and communal life, Aboriginal people reconnect with ‘historical’ and ‘religious’ spirituality. Ceremonies are the recognition of spiritual core of Dreaming by each clan. Dreaming is manifested through ceremonial/ritual action, which bring to life particular creation events from the Dreaming (metatemporal); Performed through rituals, art, stories, totems etc.

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HSC Studies of Religion 1

Example 1: Initiation Ceremonies Initiation ceremonies: signify transition from childhood to adulthood, and initiation of involvement in community affairs, including ritual/cultural knowledge and rules/laws. Rituals vary by location and knowledge of the clan takes years to fully learn. There are several stages e.g. beginning of rite of passage is ‘removal from family’ ○ Most significant stage is seclusion; initiates guided by sacred ways of Elders. Initiate is given a sacred name (Dreamtime hero), only to be used during rituals or on sacred sites ○ Given a symbol of movement into initiated world e.g. small sacred stone (tjuringa) or a bull-roarer.

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For males: ● ● ●

Arranged by male relatives Involves physical markings e.g. circumcision, cicatrisation (cutting arms), tooth avulsion. Physical testing designed to promote and strengthen the initiate’s physical capabilities

For females: ● ● ●

Arranged by female relatives Preparation for marriage Women play an important role in observing/maintaining taboos and rules

Example 2: Cosmic balance rites ●

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Aboriginals had no control over food supply, as their nomadic lifestyle did not encourage them to plant seeds or keep herds Cosmic balance rites: ceremonies concerned with the maintenance of a population of a totemic species and, by extension, the food supply. ○ Conducted by the clan with responsibility for a sacred site to coax Dreaming Spirit to emerge and give life to the species.

Example 3: Corroboree ● ●

Corroboree: Aboriginal groups interacting with the Dreaming through dance, music and costume. Time for social interaction and celebration; Usually marks the end of the ceremony.

Example 4: Death rites ●

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Death rites: ceremonies typically concerned with the settling of the spirit at its totemic site to assist its entry into the next state of existence. Spirits of the dead return to the Dreaming place/totemic site from which they originated, where they wait or are reincarnated into something else - part of the eternal transition of the life force of the Dreaming. Rituals assist spirit to move between worlds e.g. chants, dances, body paint and wailing of mourners. Burial ceremonies lay the spirit to rest and reaffirm place of living in unity with nature. Great care is taken to ensure the spirit does not return to the family: ○ Dead person’s name is not mentioned, so as not to reawaken the spirit ○ Belongings burnt soon after death; Smoke used as a screen to protect from potentially harmful spirits

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HSC Studies of Religion 1 “When an Aboriginal dies, his body must be returned to the Earth from where it came, so the spirit can be released from the body.”  - Mansell, Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre 1.1.3. Obligations to land and people ● ●

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Land provides food and water supply; land is the repository of the sacred activities of Dreaming Beings. Relationship between Aboriginal people and land is inextricably connected, as the land is considered the arena for the creative energy of the Dreaming. Paths of Ancestors can be exhibited through Dreaming tracks and song lines, which can be read as an initiate as sacred knowledge (comparable to a sacred text). Survival of humans is dependent on the land and humans have a sacred trust to assist the land in ‘living’ to its potential → “I am this land and this land is me.” - Hyllus Maris Land and all forms of life must be regarded as sacred, preserved and passed on in a timeless cycle of mutual dependence. Land is divided and distributed according to ritual responsibility (ritual estates)

“Land is the generational point of existence. It is the maintenance of existence, the spirit from which Aboriginal existence comes.” - Patrick Dodson ●

Ancestral Beings dwell in the land, therefore people have a sacred/totemic responsibility to care for and respect the land; The Dreaming is inextricably connected to the land because: ○ Land is the context for Dreaming, therefore laws, traditions, beliefs and rituals based in the land. ○ Spirit Ancestors inhabit sacred sites, and remain active and conscious. Called forth to ensure the future of the land annually (through cosmic balance rites, performed by Elders) ○ Aboriginals have a ‘mental map’ of their country after initiation, to help them understand life and the Dreaming, and their place/role in both.

1.2.a. Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities: the effect of dispossession (a) 1.2.1. Separation from land ●

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50 years after European settlement (‘terra nullius’ i n 1788), ‘protection’ became official policy; Missions established to ‘protect’ Aboriginals (from themselves e.g. reproduction/spreading of undesirable skin) Christian missionaries would evangelise, and therefore ‘civilise’, and protect Aboriginals from negative influences of Eu. settlement e.g. drugs (opium) State-run Aboriginal Protection or Welfare Boards controlled and supervised Aboriginal lives ○ Among other areas of control (e.g. marriage, travel), Boards governed what property Indigenous peoples could own and how they disposed of it. Land is the heart of Dreaming; Separation from land, physically and spiritually meant a loss of ability to live by traditional practices, laws and beliefs, as well as a loss of lore. Separation from Dreaming meant that many rituals/ceremonies lost their meaning. Aboriginals became physically, psychologically and spiritually displaced. Denial of access to/control over sacred sites prevented Aboriginals from conducting rituals necessary to participate in Dreaming, renew strength of the spirits in the world and maintain the wellbeing of all. No longer able to move around geographically, or adhere to a nomadic lifestyle.

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HSC Studies of Religion 1 (a) 1.2.2. Separation from kinship groups ● ●

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Destruction of family/cultural ties led to animosity between various traditional groups struggling to survive. Separation from kinship removed sense of belonging to humanity and place in the world; Removed ‘focus points’ from an Aboriginal person, and they lose their place in the Dreaming. Authority of the Elders was based on their knowledge of the land, thus separation resulted in: ○ Weakened respect for Elders as young Aboriginal men were separated from kinship, ○ Greatly restricted ability to ensure continuity of Aboriginal spirituality and language Prior to 1788 settlement, there were over 500 Aboriginal languages, each with their own Dreaming ■ stories. Today, only 20 languages remain ‘strong’, whilst around 80 are endangered. Traditions, laws and knowledge were not passed on and were lost, causing gaps in clans’ religious responsibilities and history, understanding of roles and responsibilities lost. Aboriginals became psychologically distressed, confused by lack of identity and belonging to community. Traditional systems of marriage, initiation and inheritance were delicate and complex; completely destroyed, resulting in limited continuity of Aboriginal Spirituality.

Example: ‘The Sorry Speech’ by Labor PM Kevin Rudd, 13th February 2008 ●

Presented to Australian House of Commons, filled with Aboriginal citizens; govt. finally acknowledged “blemishes” of Australian history after decades of stubborn silence and arrogance.

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“We apologise for the l aws and policies of successive parliaments and governments that have inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss on these, our fellow Australians.”

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“We the Parliament of Australia respectfully request that this apology be received in the spirit in which it is offered as part of the healing of the nation.”

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“But the s  tolen generations are not intellectual curiosities. They are human beings, human beings who have been damaged deeply by the decisions of parliaments and governments.”

1.2.3. Stolen Generation ●

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Stolen Generation: The over 100 000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who were forcibly removed from their families by Australian federal and state government agencies between 1910 and 1970 through a policy of assimilation. Children would be ‘brought up white’ and taught to reject their Aboriginality; Children sent to ‘training homes’ to train as domestic servants or farm labourers. In 1937, Cwlth. govt. conference with the states agreed that aim for Aboriginals not of ‘full blood’ should be their ultimate absorption into wider population (assimilation). Assimilation came in three forms: putting Indigenous children into govt. or church-run institutions/missions, adopting or fostering out children into ‘white’ families. Succeeded in breaking up families and clans, and destroying traditional culture, history and spirituality of whole communities due to severed kinship ties.

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HSC Studies of Religion 1

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Separation from Tribal Elders meant no initiation or passing on of knowledge, resulting in loss of identity (unable to belong to two opposing cultures) and loss of spirituality/totemic identification. Gov’t policy of assimilation officially abandoned in 1972, replaced with policy of s  elf-determination: ○ Achievement of full and effective participation of Indigenous peoples in Australian society. Involves recognition of the cultural distinctiveness and diversity of Indigenous peoples. ○ “Aboriginal communities deciding the pace and nature of their own future within a diverse Australia.”  Policy of Self-Determination, 1972 (Commonwealth)

The Missions ●

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Mission: Aboriginal settlement that may/may not have been at one time a religious institution, tasked with assimilation of Aboriginal children to be acceptable for absorption into Eu. societies. Examples include: Kinchela Boys’ Home and Cootamundra Girls’ Home Some were agents of govt. policy therefore forcibly separated Aboriginal children from their families, so as to maximise control over child’s ‘education into Christian ways and beliefs.’ Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, 1986: “They were told: ‘do not go around naked, do not be dirty, do not work on Sunday, and do not drink, smoke or be promiscuous.’” Many Aboriginals live split spiritual lives, uncomfortable with Christianity and its legacy of oppression, but unable to connect with the Dreaming Spirituality they would have been raised with.

Example: ‘Bringing Them Home’ Report (1997) ●

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‘National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families’ (launched in 1995) → B  ringing Them Home R  eport issued in 1997 Carried out by Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission (HREOC) Commission led by Sir Ronald Wilson and Mick Dodson (an Aboriginal Social Justice Commissioner) Found that Indigenous people were dehumanised by mass media and that there was a desire to ‘breed out’ Aboriginality. Recommendations included: 5a: Acknowledgement and apology from parliaments and police forces ○ ○ 7a: Commemoration e.g. annual ‘Sorry Day’, to commemorate the history of removals and its effects

Enduring effects of dispossession ●

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Dispossession caused a number of problems for Aboriginal society, such as: ○ Over-representation in prison: A  boriginal people represent only 3% of the total population, yet more than 28% of Australia's prison population are Aboriginal (ABS). ○ Education disadvantages and high unemployment rate ○ Higher drug and alcohol usage: r emoved Aboriginal people are twice as likely to report current use of illicit substances than non-removed Aboriginal people ○ Higher rate of infant mortality and lower life expectancy. Children were abused sexually, physically and emotionally in institutions; lost their religion, culture, ceremonies and rituals, as well as their traditional roles. Depression and demoralisation from separation from kinship led to alcoholism and violence.

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HSC Studies of Religion 1

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Loss of language led to a range of enduring impacts, including: ○ Loss of oral tales about Dreaming Ancestors and history, loss of ritual songs ○ Loss of sense of self and community; People forced to change names to anglicise them Loss of identity: “I have no identity, really.” - Cynthia Sariago, daughter of a stolen woman. Anguish of searching for lost family: “Too much water had passed under the bridge. We become mother and daughter years too late.” - Elaine Randall

1.2.b. Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities: the Land Rights Movement ●

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From 1960s, Aboriginal quest for justice become part of political landscape and provided groundwork for Land Rights struggle to come. Terra Nullius w  as used to reject many land claims; doctrine of terra nullius  meant that the European power which discovered a new uninhabited territory was entitled to claim that land as part of its empire.

Event

Information/Key points

1965: The ‘Freedom Riders’

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1967: The Referendum

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27 May: Overwhelming ‘yes’ to propose constitutional changes to account for Aboriginals in census. Cwlth. would have to make laws for Aboriginal peoples.

1972: The ‘Tent Embassy’

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Australia Day: ‘Aboriginal Embassy’ (tent) erected on lawns of Parliament House (Canberra), where Aboriginal flag become famous. Became a focal point for protests about denial of rights, of federal and state govt. action. Caused embarrassment to govt. due to national television broadcasting of campers braving the Canberra winter in tattered tents. Govt. gained ordinance to ban camping on public grounds in ACT → Cwlth. police tore down tents → re-erected by supporters → forced down by police again. Protests around Australia in support of Aboriginal cause - Aboriginal Land Rights had become an issue; Land Rights Movement both a spiritual and political movement.

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30 people, led by Indigenous USYD student Charles Perkins, undertook a bus tour of northern and western NSW to protest against racial discrimination. Focused on racism/segregation generated from White Australia Policy.

(b) 1.2.1. Importance of Native Title for the Land Rights movement ●

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Native title: belief of Indigenous Australians that they have inherited rights and obligations to their country, existing since ‘time immemorial’, deriving from occupation of land prior to Eu. settlement in 1788. Seeking recognition of native title is central to the Land Rights Movement. The recognition of native title has been part of English law for hundreds of years, based on fundamental principle that inhabitants of a territory with prior possession of land had a right to retain land against newcomers including the English settlers of that territory. In all British settlements, laws/customs of indigenous people relating land ownership and management were recognised by common law: in North America, New Zealand and Africa—but not in Australia.

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HSC Studies of Religion 1 Example 1: Native Title Act 1993 ●

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Legislation came into force on 1 January 1994; Recognised the existence of Aboriginal Native Title in Australian federal law and the native title rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Allowed Indigenous people to claim land if they could prove a continuing connection to the land, and if the land was not occupied.

Example 2: Native Title Amendment Act 1998 ●

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The Coalition (Liberal-National Parties) govt. elected March 1996 had a policy of amending N. Title Act to make it more ‘workable’ - PM John Howard introduced his 10 point plan to put Wik ruling into practice. October 1998: N. Title Amendment Act passed; empowers states and territories to legislate their own native title regimes; Also reduced Aboriginal influence on native title; now they merely had to be consulted of native title claims, as opposed to claiming for themselves.

(b) 1.2.2. Importance of the Mabo Decision for the Land Rights movement “It is my father’s land, my grandfather’s land, my grandmother’s land. I am related to it, it give me my identity. ” - Father Dave Passi, plaintiff in Mabo Case, in ‘Land Bilong Islanders’ documentary, 1990. ●

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Case led by Eddie Mabo and four other Indigenous plaintiffs, from the Murray Islands in the Torres Strait (Meriam people); Mabo took action to High Court to overturn the legally fictitious doctrine of terra nullius. On 3 June, 1992, High Court ...