Idealised Sexualities in Rajput Miniature Paintings of Rasikapriya PDF

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ART, DESIGN AND SOCIETY GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES EDITORS Anupa Pande Savita Kumari ART, DESIGN AND SOCIETY.indb 3 5/25/2021 4:11:36 PM CONTENTS Foreword xi Acknowledgements xiii Introduction 1 1. Art History: The Melting Pot • T he Term “Society” with Marxist Connotations in China LaoZhu (Zhu Qingshe...

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ART, DESIGN AND SOCIETY GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES

EDITORS

Anupa Pande Savita Kumari

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CONTENTS xi

Foreword

Acknowledgements



Introduction

xiii 1

1. Art History: The Melting Pot

•

T he Term “Society” with Marxist Connotations in China LaoZhu (Zhu Qingsheng)9



•

T o Every Age its Art, to Every Art its Freedom Sophie Geretsegger14

2. Design of the Past: Art of the Present

•

Interlinked Jewellery Traditions of India and Europe During the British Raj Ruhi Priya23



•

 eauty of the Holy Quran: Calligraphy and Illumination B Khatibur Rahman31



•

T he Design of the City and its Reflection in the Design of the Work of Applied Art: Depiction of the City of Zadar on the Tapestries by Anita and Ivan Tomljanović Iva Rukavina39

3. Synthesising the Sacred and the Secular

•

T en Ox-Herding: A Case of Intercultural Broadcast of the Chinese Zen Image Zhang Zhetan51



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T he Hidden Base of the Beejamandal Temple: The Untold Story of the Marvel of Khajuraho Nikita Rathore61



•

S anctum Sanctorum, Art and Chaklang: Retelling the Story of a Tai-Ahom Ceremony Juri Gogoi Konwar70



•

T ranscultural Design: A New Inquiry into William Blake’s Sources Julie Ramos77



•

T emple Construction for Commemorating the Dead Chandramolle Modgil84



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T he Qutb Complex: From Afghanistan to Delhi Catherine B Asher92

v

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4. Art & Design: Feminist Perspectives



• •

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 atronage and Influence of Royal Women in Later Mughal Delhi P Savita Kumari 

103

 rt and Womanhood in Colonial Society: The Iconography of Women in the Service of Politics in the A British Empire in India Dorota Kaminska-Jones

111

F eminist Pioneers Lost in Political Narratives - Same Story of Three Women Groups from Different Societies Hu Chao 

119

5. Art & Design: Expressions of Conflict and Synthesis in Society

•

 rt and Violence in the Contemporary Art Practices of Assam A Rikimi Madhukaillya129



•

 ineteenth Century Museums of Arts and Crafts in Germany – Colonialism or Fascination with Asian Culture? N G Ulrich Grossmann135



•

 Belgian Enclave in India: The New Delhi Embassy as a Product of Architectural Diplomacy? A Bram De Maeyer141



•

 esign and Denial: Leonardo Olschki, Italian Art and Mongol Eurasia D Anne Dunlop149



•

 onnecting Communities: Sharing Knowledge Throughout Networks Projects, Online Platforms and C Virtual Museums Maria João Nunes de Albuquerque157

6. Utility to Frivolity

•

 Study on the Significance of Traditional Practice of Woodcarving of the Naga Tribe A Ngarin Singlai167



•

 aravanserais, a Multicultural Heritage Along the Silk Road: A Perfect Interface of Space, Design and Utility C Harsha Joshi173

7. Space, Design & Art

•

Iconographic Programme at Prasat Phnom Rung, Thailand Chedha Tingsanchali183



•

 Modern “World Garden” in the Ancient Temple of Earth: Public Space Designed for Patriotic and A Nationalistic Propaganda Yuning Teng188



•

 rt in Urban Design and Rejuvenation of Public Spaces A Tanima Bhattacharya and Joy Sen196



•

 e-examining the Modern Art Narrative in Malaysia During the 1980s R Sarena Abdullah208

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8. Power, Politics & Propaganda • The São Paulo Art Biennial: Power and Politics Tatiane De Oliveira Elias217 • Crafting the Avant-Garde: Artists, Art Markets, Museums and the Invention of the “Primitive” Anja Grebe224

9. Sustainability: Practice and Production • Songs of the Forest: Transformation of Tribal Objects into Artefacts Sushmit Sharma235 • Framing “Bihariness”: The Idea of Design in the Regional Art of Bihar Rahul Dev240

10. Vision, Perception and Interpretation • The Saga of Symbols: Case Study of the Buddhist Scroll Paintings Kanak Lata Singh

249

• The Play of Clouds: The Rhythm in Rabindranath Tagore’s Manuscript Doodles Huang Hong

256

11. Signs & Symbolism in Art & Design • On the Symbolism of the Early Indian Stūpas Wang Yun

265

• Framing the Śaiva Icon: Articulation of Patronage Under the Bhauma-Kara Rulers of Eighth Century Odisha Monalisa Behera

273

• Symbolism in Male Folk Deities of Goa Rohit R Phalgaonkar

280

12. Prevailing Over Prejudice: Untold Stories • Morphing Identities: Art, Craft and Design in the Works of Abani Sen Arundhati Dasgupta

289

• Craft Design: Imperceptible to Perceptible – Usta Anketa Kumar

296

• Between the Margin and the Limbo Art and Design Related to Afro-Brazilian Religions During Modernism Roberto Conduru

302

13. Interpreting the Intangible Through the Tangible • lksyg Üka`xkj% dk;k ,oa dk;k ifj"dkj dh vfHkO;fÙkQ latho oqQekj flag

311

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• Kaivalyam: Interpreting the Intangible Through the Tangible Pawan Jain

322

• Painted Visions of Nāyikās in Select Rāgachitra Folios of the Gem Palace Collection of the National Museum, India Anupa Pande

330



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 ays of Living Along the Silk Roads: Representation of the “Other” and Cross-cultural Encounters During the Second W Millennium AD Laura Yerekesheva

• The Idealised Sexualities in the Rājput Miniature Paintings of Rasikapriyā Chetan Chhiller

340 351

14. Impacting Society: Social & Digital Media • Advertising and Digital Media: Branding a New Indian Society Sugandha Gumber

363

• Skin to Screen: Transforming the Indelible Markings of Godna into a Digital Typeface Ishan Khosla

368

• Modern Storytelling: Appropriating and Retelling the Past for the Present Generation Roshini Roy Festus

377

15. Harmonising the Individual and the Collective • A Study on Chinese Bonsai in Twentieth Century by Zhou Shoujuan’s Bonsai Art Zheng Yameng

391

Contributors

397



406

Abstract Review Committee

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Interpreting the Intangible Through the Tangible

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The Idealised Sexualities in the Rājput Miniature Paintings of Rasikapriyā Chetan Chhiller

In the very first chapter of Rasikapriya¯ the poet mentions the nine rasas of Indian aesthetic theory and emphasises śṛṅga¯ra rasa (the erotic sentiment based on the emotion of love) as the prime rasa, which is the key element of his poetry. The theory of love in Rasikapriya¯ can be understood in three categories – firstly, as the poetic theory of śṛṅga¯ra rasa, which is an aesthetic experience; secondly, as a theory of kamaśa¯stra, i.e. the knowledge of the arts of lovemaking; and thirdly, as devotional bhakti philosophy, which is a spiritual experience. Keśavada¯sa blends these three aspects of śṛṅga¯ra rasa into a beautiful rendition in his poetry. Through these aspects he provides a symbolic expression to an idealised realm of a loving relationship between the idealised na¯yaka and na¯yika. He portrays them not only as youthful, handsome and renouncing, but also adept in the arts of lovemaking, emphasising their sexuality. Through the aid of the theory of śṛṅga¯ra rasa he brings to the forefront discussions on sexuality. He identifies Kṛṣṇa as the romantic hero, the na¯yaka – the god who is also a lover. And he builds an index of three hundred and sixty na¯yika¯s, representing female sexuality in almost all its aspects.

Idealised sexuality is a prominent theme in the poetry and paintings of Rasikapriya¯. The author of Rasikapriya¯ uses the Indian aesthetic theory of rasa, especially śṛṅga¯ra rasa, to illuminate his ideas on the concept of love and sexualities. This paper intends to study the idealised of human sexuality as observed in the Ra¯jput miniature paintings of Rasikapriya¯. The poetry of Rasikapriya¯ is a rı¯tika¯vya (mannered poetry). It was written by court poet Keśavada¯sa in 1591 CE in the vernacular language of Braja and was commissioned by Ra¯ja¯ Indrajı¯t of Orchha¯, which is currently located in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. The poetry was immediately adapted by numerous Ra¯jput schools of miniature painting, including both Rajasthan and Paha¯ri ateliers like Ma¯lwa¯, Mewa¯r, Bundi, Kishangarh and Ka¯ngra¯, where artists created numerous series of paintings on it through the period of the sixteenth to eighteenth century. The poetry is composed in 16 chapters based on various aspects of śṛṅga¯ra rasa like love in union (saṁbhoga) and love in separation (vipralambha), classification of the hero (na¯yaka), heroine (na¯yika¯1) and love messengers (sakhı¯), the ten stages of love and rasa theory, underlined by the bhakti philosophy of Vaiṣṇavism. With a strong emphasis on the aesthetic and erotic nature of ś ṛṅga¯ra rasa, the poetry glorifies beauty and sexuality. It is courtly, aestheticised and erotic.

Śṛṅgāra Rasa: The Aesthetic and Erotic Experience The first record of the aesthetic theory of rasa is found in the Na¯ṭyaśa¯stra written by Bharata Muni (dated between the

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second century BC to second century CE2) in the context of dramaturgy and histrionics. In Chapter six of the Na¯ṭyaśa¯stra Bharata mentions eight na¯ṭya rasas of which one is śṛṅga¯ra rasa, the erotic sentiment. He says śṛṅga¯ra or the erotic rasa proceeds from the stha¯yı¯ bha¯va of rati i.e. love. Its colour is blue with Viṣṇu as its deity. It is described as having a bright attire and is comparable to whatever is pure, clean, bright and beautiful in the world. It owes its origin to men and women and relates to the fullness of youth. It has two bases: saṁbhoga (union) and vipralambha (separation).

wine goblets, chalices, etc. The vibrant colour palette of vermilion red, shades of green and blue is passionate and evocative. The sakhı¯s4 seated in the bottom corner of the image are the spectators narrating this affair while conversing between themselves. This is a passionate and intimate moment of lovemaking between Ra¯dha¯ and Kṛṣṇa – the na¯yaka and

The first chapter of Rasikapriya¯ talks about these two aspects of ś ṛṅga¯ra rasa – love in union (saṁbhoga) and love in separation (vipralambha). He further subdivides both into two categories – prachanna (hidden/ concealed) and praka¯śa (open/ manifest). The poet further gives examples of na¯yaka and na¯yika¯’s hidden and manifest love in union and separation. Below is an example of their love in union: Once in the woods when Kṛṣṇa did sport With Ra¯dha¯, seeking pleasures sweet, And shouts of joy did issue forth As oft when lustful lovers meet, When she did take the active role Her necklace studded with dark gems Did wildly shake thus to and fro, Says Keśava, as it were the sun Had taken Saturn on his lap And joyfully him he had swayed In swing of black silk- so did flash Those dark gems with each move she made.3 The painting (Pic1) from Mewa¯r, dated c.1630-40 CE, is a visual rendition of this verse. It identifies with the quintessential pictorial elements of the Mewa¯r school – a mustard border showing the original verse written in Devana¯gari script on the top; the archetypal lovers amidst the stylised landscape of lush vegetation and depiction of various accessories conveying a courtly lifestyle like the

Pic 1: Rasikapriyā, Hidden Love in Union, Mewār, c.1630-40, Opaque watercolor and ink on paper, page 20 x 20 cm, National Museum, Delhi, India. From: Harsha V. Dehejia. Rasikapriya: Ritikavya of Keshavadas in Ateliers of Love. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld, 2013.

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na¯yika portrayed as archetypal lovers. The artist exhibits their lovemaking explicitly for the pleasure of the viewer. He shows the amorous couple in complete nude, Kṛṣṇa being śya¯maranga (blue coloured) and Ra¯dha¯ being a fair-skinned na¯yika¯. The image and text coordination is accurate. The artist faithfully portrays the reverse role-play between the lovers, which the poet emphasises as biprı¯t ratı¯. While Kṛṣṇa lies on the bed, Ra¯dha¯ is on top taking the active role. In Ratirahasya,5 Kokkoka describes this sexual position of congress as purusha¯yita¯ rata, which is of three types, where the woman comes on top and assumes the man’s role. This particular posture of the couple is called samdamsha. And the

The poet exhibits her manifest sexual longing through numerous metaphors, all of which are faithfully shown in the painting. She complains that having tasted the pleasures of lovemaking, now she is like a dying fish that cannot be saved by milk but only water. Her love is like a burning fire, and once having burnt herself in it the same cannot cool her down. Her emotions overwhelm her and she scolds her friends who do not seem to understand her misery and are only superficially tending to her pains by pitiful remedies like fanning her with cool breezes or bringing her flowers.

woman’s posture is called vadava, where she can either grasp her lover’s linga (phallus) in her yoni (vagina) or press it.6 The poet’s comparison of this sexual union to the cosmic union of the sun and the planet Saturn is also faithfully represented by the artist as a pendant swaying around Ra¯dha¯’s neck, thus making the painting sensually rich, yet spiritually evocative. Another verse depicting an example of the na¯yika¯’s manifest love in separation is well illustrated in a painting from the Mewa¯r school: O! fan me not with breezes cool And keep the moon’s soft light away, For these my pleasure have removed And sorrowful have made my days. Scatter the flowers, dust camphor off From me, this sandal me afflicts, A dying fish from water cast Can be by water saved – not milk! My suffering do you comprehend? Or knowing not, you tend my pain? Who by this fire is burnt, my friend Is by that same fire cooled again!7 The painting (Pic 2) dated c.1660-70 CE shows us the state of despair of the lovelorn na¯yika¯ who is separated from her lover.

Pic 2: Rasikapriyā, Rādhā’s Manifest Love in Separation, Mewār, c.1660-70, Opaque watercolour and ink on paper, 23.5 x 19.69cm, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. From: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, https://www.vmfa.museum (accessed August 14, 2019).

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Whereas only a sexual union with her lover can restore her robbed pleasures, back, for she has tasted true bliss in it.

O ! Why do you thus on me glance? Who is that man on whom you throw Your gaze, with eyebrows made aslant?

The Nāyaka

Seeing your eyes red, I guess they glow Not from night’s rage: my body burns

In the second chapter of Rasikapriya¯, Keśavada¯sa characterises the na¯yaka, who is referred to as Kṛṣṇa8. He is defined as one who is renouncing, young, vigorous, vain, forgiving, adept in the arts of love, handsome, wealthy, skilful and plain. These desirable qualities of a hero are courtly in nature more than idealistic and virtuous. Moreover Keśavada¯sa emphasises the na¯yaka to be kokakala¯ni pravı¯na, i.e. adept in the art of lovemaking, or more specifically “someone skilled in koka-śa¯stra” referring to the treatise of Ratirahasya by Kokkoka. This identifies the prominent sexual nature of Kṛṣṇa, an ideal na¯yaka, as classified by the poet in Rasikapriya¯. By doing so, he brings Viṣṇu avata¯r Kṛṣṇa to a human level, where having a romantic relationship with him appears conceivable. He becomes one amongst us, who behaves and acts like any other human. This is emphasised further by his classification as four types of na¯yakas, who are pleasant, polite, loving and also equally cunning, dishonest and immoral. These na¯yakas are: anuku¯l (agreeable), dakṣiṇ (dexterous), śaṭha (deceitful) and dhriṣṭa (brazen) na¯yaka. They are elaborated upon by giving examples of each na¯yaka’s hidden and manifest behaviour.

Red hot with parting; e’er your eyes Dwell in my heart, and heated turn Bright red; so in them redness lies.9

The painting (Pic 3) from Bundi dated c.1725-30 CE is based on a verse from the poetry describing the deceitful behaviour of Ś aṭha na¯yaka. He is full of sweet words, but is deceitful and lives in the disguise of a good man. He has no dread of doing wrong and is entirely removed from truth. Returning at dawn after his romantic rendezvous with another na¯yika¯, the na¯yaka comes home to his lover who longs for him, but is now furious because he spent his night elsewhere. Seeing anger in his na¯yika¯'s eyes the na¯yaka, trying to conceal his wrong-doing, says to her: The redness of your eyes is like

Pic 3: Rasikapriyā, Ṡaṭha Nāyaka, Bundi, c. 1680, Opaque watercolour, gold and ink on paper, page 28.3 x 18.4 cm, miniature 26.4 x 15.3 cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, Purchase and partial girl from the Catherine and Ralph Benkaim Collection. From: The Cleveland Museum of Art, http://www.clevelandart.org (accessed August 14, 2019).

Bright lilies red, red sandal-paste No whit their splendid redness vies With burnishes gold, or champa¯ pale.

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Unlike the Mewa¯r style, Bundi artists are subtle in their visual translation of the verses. Relying on the viewer’s literary understanding of the poetic verse quoted in the mustard compartment above, the artist shows us the lovers amidst a conversation, the intensity of which is only apparent through their hand gestures. He does not show us the bright red lilies, the red sandal paste, the burnishing gold or red champa¯ flowers mentioned by the poet to define the redness of the na¯yika’s anger-filled eyes. The archetypal na¯yaka and na¯yika¯ of the Bundi paintings, amidst a more refined courtly setting and white marble architecture, are captured in a moment of argument where the na¯yaka is trying to pacify his lover by craftily hiding his extra marital affairs.

Sa¯ma¯nya¯ na¯yika¯. This threefold classification is found in Rudrata’s Ka¯vyalamka¯ra and Rudrabhatt’s Ś ṛṅga¯ra Tilaka upon which Keśavada¯sa expands. Svakı¯ya¯ na¯yika¯ (literally translated as “one’s own” wife or lover) is sub-classified into three types – Mugdha¯, Madhya¯ and Prauḍha¯, and each of these are further sub-divided into four types. Parakı¯ya¯ na¯yika¯ (literally meaning “someone else’s”, is one who is not the wife of na¯yaka, but a lover) is sub-classified into ¯ ḍha¯ (married woman) and Anu...