Ideologies: Liberalism PDF

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Learning Outcomes      By end of lecture, you will: Be able to define key elements of liberalism as a political ideology Distinguish between types of liberalism Critique liberalism Approach a political question in a ‘liberal’ way What is liberalism?  Arguably the dominant ideology  We live in...

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Learning Outcomes     

By end of lecture, you will: Be able to define key elements of liberalism as a political ideology Distinguish between types of liberalism Critique liberalism Approach a political question in a ‘liberal’ way

What is liberalism? 

Arguably the dominant ideology

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We live in a liberal democracy

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Intimate connection with capitalism

“a poncho rather than a program” “to call oneself a liberal one doesn’t really have to believe in anything.”- Iriving Howe (1954) What is liberalism? Key Liberal Principles: 

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Individual is paramount o Individual is the starting point of liberalism o Atomistic individual is the core Rights and liberties of individual delimit area in which the state is entitled to act o Right to speak o Right to not be interfered with Society is no more than the aggregation of individuals

John Locke: “Grandfather of Liberalism” : Rejection of Absolutism    

men are naturally free and equal, no free man can be bound to obey a government without own consent, so no absolute government can be regarded as legitimate Man has property rights over himself and all he invests himself in

Ingredients of liberalism 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The individual Property Contract and consent Freedom as Choice Equality of opportunity Social Justice based on merit Tolerance Private and public life

1. The individual 2. Property

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preservation of the individual and attainment of individual happiness are supreme goals of a liberal political system human life is sacrosanct: violence prohibited unless in a war to protect liberal society itself individuals are rational utility maximizers politics is participatory, not forced Locke: ‘the laws of nature’ give man the right ‘to preserve his property – that is, his life, liberty and estate’ only task of government is to aid him in this Individuals are neither social or anti-social, but ‘mutually indifferent’ o We aren't naturaly socially or anti socially beings

3. Contract and consent          

Locke: in ‘state of nature’ no impartial judge to arbitrate disputes. Therefore, men would rationally and peacefully form a society with a government that operated on majority decisions Governments can only occur with consent Tacit consent or active consent? Governments can be removed for: ruling by arbitrary decree destroying or enslaving subjects transferring its own powers to others taking a man’s property without consent Liberalism does not entail democracy, but democracy is probably the best way to secure liberalism.

Declaration of Independence 1776 “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. 4. Freedom as choice   

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Freedom is par paramount: amount: means by which rational individuals pursue own interests Freedom is linked to choice: e.g. over property [spending money] o Freedom to vote, to read what you want J.S. Mill (19thC): freedom of speech, thought, and religion is a right for all, unless … o “the only purpose for which ppower ower can be rightfully ex exercised ercised over any member of a civilized community community,, against hi hiss will, is to prevent harm tto o others. His own good, either physical or mor moral, al, is not a sufficie sufficient nt warr warrant. ant. ant.”” Choice in politics requires a variety of doctrines to be on offer – pluralist democr democracy acy

5. Equality of opportunity      

Liberalism evolved alongside capitalism Capitalism = mass inequalities of wealth and income (i.e. property ownership) All are born equal, with specific attributes attributes: rational, self-interested, individual rights, etc. Q: How to reconcile liberal idea of human equality with inequality caused by capitalism? A: Equality of opportunity. As we all start equal, we deserve fruits of our competition

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Assumption/myth(?) underlying liberal ideology

6. Social justice based on merit    

Individuals gain rewards in proportion to their talents and merits in exchange for their contribution to society System organized so those who gain most have des deserved erved most Equality of opportunity, free enterprise and competition produce a just distribution of income and other goods Focus is on procedures, not outcomes

7. Tolerance      

Tolerance = non-suppression of dissident or nonconf nonconformist ormist views Locke (1689): government should concern itself with preservation of peace; morality is the business of priests J.S. Mill (1859) tolerance necessary route to ‘truth’: “We can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavouring to stifle is a false opinion, and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still.” “He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that.” Tolerance is necessary to accommodate diversity of beliefs which can bring use towards human good

tolerance and Illiberalism  

For too long, we have been a passively tolerant society, saying to our citizens: as long as you obey the law, we will leave you alone. It's often meant we have stood neutral between different values. And that's helped foster a narrative of extremism and grievance. This Government will conclusively turn the page on this failed approach

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- David Cameron (Muscular Liberalism speech)

8. Private and public life 

Tension between the priv private ate and public

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Locke Locke: government should not pervade every area of social life, which is a separate sphere. o State and public are different Mill Mill: citizens gain most satisfaction from the private (opposite of Ancient Greek notion “man is a political animal”). Reject compulsion in po politics litics (i.e. compulsory voting, or even compulsory health insurance)

o Public= sphere of society  

Combining the ingredients Coherent model of society in abstract:

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Society made up of self-interested individuals o Indivu=iduals out to gain their own pursuit of happiness Government by consent Maximum individual freedom (operating under harm principle) Free markets Small government (and low taxes) Pluralism o We can't ban ideas

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Equality of opportunity o Meritocracy

To some extent ahistorical:

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value of liberty and individual is timeless, not time/culture-bound o Therefore other non-liberal states have a population that want to be liberal, but are currently oppressed Liberalism arises spontaneously based on human desires and interests (at all times, in all places)

Next Steps…     

We will consider in more detail: 1. The value of the individual in liberal ideology 2. The role of interests in liberal ideology and problems that arise 3. The Problem/Complexity of the ‘Harm Principle’ 4. Modern Developments in liberal (and liberal influenced) ideology

1. The value of the individual      

egoism is natur natural; al; as such, human desires are the most important consideration for deciding human good; the pursuit of self self-- interest The desires of the social whole are a false aggregat aggregate; e; could go against individual interests. belief in the sanctity of human life life;; a ‘right to life’, but not necessarily the ‘right to a decent life’ o No right to a house, clothing Problem: Can liberal idea of self-preservation explain sacrifice for others, suicide bombings? It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. - Adam Smith Makes us feel good to help others

2. Do I know my own interests?  

Rational self self-interest -interest a key ingredient of liberalism: people know their interests and can pursue them How? Subjective accounts: Each of our accounts of our interests is held to be true and accurate and deserving of respect

BUT :

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Must about things in my interest I don’t consciously know about? o Marxist false consciousness What about things in my interest I don’ don’tt want? Should we ignore ‘perverse wants’? Should we impose ‘real’ interests which would benefit people even if they do not consciously want them?

3. Problems with identifying your ‘interests’  

interests, highlighted when they vote. People’s political interests are their expressed interests Economically, people’s consumer choices show their revealed preferences preferences.

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Yet, both ignore limitations on freedom of choice, a core ingredient of liberalism : o Affordabilit Affordability y in economic terms – you are limited by your financial resources o Politica Politicall choice – is there really a full range? What about those who don’t vote?

Berlin: positive vs. negative freedom 

Negative Freedom o I am free if no one stops me from doing what I want to do

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Positive Freedom o I am free if I have the resources needed to do what I want to do

Interests & the Free Rider Problem    

What if it is not in your interest to contribute to a collective endeavour, because you will get the benefits from others’ action regardless? Liberalism has to make a special provision to argue that the interests of the free rider are not proper interests arguably the free rider is epitome of the self-interested rational actor! Highlights different rules needed in public sphere?

3. THE HARM PRINCIPLE ‘Harm’ is NOT offence or dislike 

Mill Gives the example of Muslim dislike of a Christian eating pork o this is a self-regarding action causing no harm, so should be allowed. o Being insulted isn't enough

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Says utility (greatest happiness) remains: o “ultimate appeal on all ethical questions”

What exactly constitutes ‘harm’?    

Physical damage? Psychological damage? Cultural Harm (Patriarchy, institutional racism, etc.)? Is coercion for the good of the individual never justified? o e.g suicide, they aren't thinking rationally

On Liberty: “As soon as any part of a person’s conduct affects prejudicially the interests of others, society has jurisdiction over it, and the question whether the general welfare will or will not be promoted by interfering with it, becomes open to discussion.” 

We can discuss and debate what constitutes harm

“Girls are like plasticine … if you warm them up you can do anything you want with them.”   

Objectification Rape Culture Middlesex University research: “Who said it: Lads Mag or rapists?”

o only 50% guess correct Unequal power relations and free speech 

What of unequal power relations in terms of ‘speech’?

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Is freedom of speech a positive means for healthy ‘diversity’ of opinion when loudest voices shout down those who cannot shout as loudly?

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How does maximum ‘utility’ work here? Idea that we should be promoting the maximum happiness

The Contract of Mutual Indifference Negative liberty (freedom from…)  

“A legal and moral culture of rights and obligations largely structured around the notion that one should refrain from harming others, but that helping them or not helping them is a matter of individual inclination, is plainly inadequate… … in these [liberal] societies practical indifference to the calamities and sufferings of others is taken to be a legitimate mode of personal conduct. Living side by side with them, not regarding them as one’s own responsibility – to try to mitigate or to seek to end – is not widely seen as a form of mor moral al depr depravity avity avity.”

Critique of Liberalism: born of and embedded within class & racial privilege 

Liberalism was born out of and espoused by class interest: colonialists and slavers, then plantation owners (see Locke and Mill) – the ultimate capitalists

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Liberalism embedded representation for white capitalists Liberalism’s link to wealthy and properties espoused by figures like Locke, Hume, Smith and Mill

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Liberalism differentiated from ‘plebs’ vulgarity

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i.e. need a ‘liberal education’ (in ‘liberal studies’) to rule.

Critique of Liberalism: Continuation Today 

Liberal Democracy founded upon blood, sweat and exploitation of workers and slaves (internally and externally): no reparations

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Liberal parties dominated by middle-class (closed shop), and voted for by them

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Emphasis on individual liberty overrides egalitarian or redistributive measures to help poorest, or excluded

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Liberal markets exploit poorest in global trade

4. MODERN DEVELOPMENTS Libertarianism, Thatcherism, Liberal Democracy Modern Developments: social liberalism    

support for welfare-state Shift towards positive freedom But to what extent is this liberalism and not social democracy? Individual vs. society?

Modern Developments: John Rawls (1921-2002)      

A Theory of Justice (1971): key contribution to modern (social) liberal thought How can we form, collectively, a social contract by which we would all choose to live? How to overcome who we are and what we prize? hypothetical original position proposed Imagine choosing the structure of society if you didn’t know who you were – what you had, your rrace, ace, skills, sex. You choose from behind a ‘veil of ignor ignora ance’ nce’.. Rawls thinks we would all choose equality.

Behind the ‘veil of ignorance’: What would we choose?   

Rawls sees two main positions arising from the original position: equal basic rights for all ci citizens tizens (e.g. political, religious, etc.). These take precedence over general welfare or social utility. Second, economic and social equalit equality y. This does not require a totally equal distribution of wealth, but the only inequalities permitted are those that work for the poorest in society.

Modern Developments: Libertarianism  

Anti-state ideology – the logical extreme of liberalism. Right to life, liberty and property paramount (fundamentally Lockean)

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To achieve this, tthe he state must be remov removed ed as it is an agent of coercion and the foremost violator of liberty liberty.. Key writers here are Nozick and Hayek

Modern Developments: New Right 

Advocated a reversal of social liberalism

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Support ‘neoliberalism’ o Laissez faire capitalism o free-market o privatisation and marketisation o anti-regulation  Choose healthcare/ education o ‘greed is good’

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Pro-dictatorships advocating free market (anti-Communist)

Modern Developments: New Right: “Thatcherism” “What the doctrine of the free economy and the strong state affirms is that the use of force is justified when it is employed to defeat and contain those interests, organisations and individuals that threaten the survival of the free economy, either by flouting its rules or resisting the outcomes that flow from market exchanges.” Liberalism as an element of political ideologies     

Liberal Democrats liberal conservatives liberal socialism Social liberalism Progressivism

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Individual Rights Anti-authoritarian Economic liberalism Social liberalism

Case Study: Higher Education       

Value of individual Individual freedom of speech Individual freedom to act (Harm Principle) Driven by rational self-interest choice (free-market system) Small State Under veil of ignor ignorance? ance?

 No limits to subjects allowed to learn (what offered is demand based), or what allowed to say about/within them  Freedom not to attend (what of assessment?)

 Consumer approach to education – develop skills to increase own liberty (economic and social)  Fee-paying & market system (not public funded/subsidised by taxes)...