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International Relations Shakoor Kakar CSS 2016 Syllabus and Contents (Paper I; 100 Marks) 1. Introduction  The Definition and Scope of International Relations.  The Nation-State System  Evolution of International Society 2. Theories and Approaches  The Classical Approaches-Realism and idealism  The Scientific Revolution-Behavioral Approach, System Approach  Neo-realism, Neo-liberalism.  Post-modernism, Critical Theory, Feminism, Constructivism 3. International Political Security.  Conceptualization of security in the twenty-first century  Power Elements of National Power  Balance of Power  Foreign Policy: Determinants, Decision making and analysis  Sovereignty  National Interest 4. Strategic Approach to International Relation.  War: Causation of War, Total War, Limited War, Asymmetric Warfare, civil war, Guerilla war  Strategic Culture: Determinants of Pakistani Strategic Culture.  Deterrence: Theory and practice with special reference to Nuclear India and Pakistan 5. International Political Economy.  Theories in IPE: Mercantilism, Economic Liberalism, and neo- Marxism  Theories of Imperialism, Dependence and Interdependence 6. International political community.  Nationalism  Internationalism  Globalization 7. Approaches to Peace  Diplomacy page  International Law  Arms Control /Disarmament and Nuclear Non-proliferation Regime 8. International Political Institution  United Nations  International Monetary Fund (IMF)  World Bank  International Court of Justice

By Shakoor Kakar GCU Lahore

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Chapter One: Introduction to International Relation This chapter consists of two topics; as categorized by CSS syllabus 1. Definition and Scope of International Relations 2. Evolution of International Society 1. Definition of International Relations “International relations is the study of human interaction at the international scale” International relations is a very broad concept. International relations occasionally referred to . It is both an academic and public policy field. It is often considered as branch of political Science but an important sector of academia prefers to treat it as interdisciplinary field of study. Aspects of International relations have been studied for thousands of Years since Thucydides but international Relations has become a separate and definable discipline in the early 20th century. . 2. SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS One of the challenges you will face in your study of IR is the overwhelming volume of information available about states, nations, countries, region and systems. It is impossible for you to know everything about everything. . – They also interact across different sectors of human behaviour – political, economic and social. .

As discuss above that international relations encompass a myriad of discipline. Attempts to structure and intellectualize it have often been thematically and analytically confined to boundaries determined by data.

Moreover it covers , state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, terrorism, organized crime, human security, foreign interventionism and human rights. International and Political Science The subject of international relations is taught in many universities, often in combination with, or as part of, the curriculum of political science. But in my view the attempt by political scientists to exert some kind of monopoly over the subject of international relations is neither practicable nor sustainable. The serious student of international relations needs to have some knowledge of international history, law, and economics as well as foreign policy and international politics. Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

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EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY

Introduction The idea of international society . It is the central concept of the ‗English School‘ of International Relations. Although originally coined to refer to relations among European states, the term may be applied to many different sets of political arrangements among distinct political communities. Evolution Of International Society 1. Ancient worlds Elements of international society may be found from the time of the first organized human communities. Early forms of diplomacy and treaties existed in the ancient Middle East.

. . Greek international society was also underpinned by shared moral understandings about rightful international conduct that were ultimately derived from religious norms. These concerned areas like diplomacy, the sanctity of treaties, entry into war and the treatment of enemy dead.

. These ranged from conceptions of what constituted a just war through various rituals to be observed at the commencement of war to numerous prohibitions on certain forms of conduct during and after war. The concept of dharma, a multifaceted Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

4 CSS IR 2016: By Shakoor Kakar term signifying natural and eternal laws, provided the underlying moral foundation for these injunctions. Kautilya’s Arthasastra (fourth century BCE) added a sophisticated set of maxims concerning the rules to be followed by kings seeking to dominate the Indian state system. These present the necessity for humane conduct in war as a requirement of prudent statecraft rather than simply of morality. As with Greece and the earlier Near Eastern societies, treaties in India were regarded as having a sacred quality, although additional securities against the breaking of a treaty, such as hostages, were sometimes insisted on.

. Such relationships were based on similar principles relating to treaties and diplomacy to those found in Greece and India. Rome, however, developed a more extensive legal terminology than any other ancient society, and some of this was carried over into its international relations. Republican Rome often sought legal means of settling certain kinds of disputes with other states and also required various religious rituals to be gone through before a war could be declared just, and therefore legal. 2. Medieval Europe Medieval Europe’s international society was a complex mixture of supranational, transnational, national, and subnational structures.

i. The Christian orders

. The Pope‘s role was usually conceptualized in terms of its ‗authority‘ rather than ‗power‘ and specif . society. The Church‘s comprehensive moral and ethical code touched upon international relations in several key respects. There were,

ii. Islamic Order

. Second, Islam was Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

5 CSS IR 2016: By Shakoor Kakar . In its early stages, the ideal of the umma was to some extent realized in practice through the institution of the caliphate (the successor to the governing role of Muhammad PBUH). The adoption of Islam by the nomadic Turks brought a new impetus. nce. In early Islamic theory, the world was divided into the dâr al-harb (the abode of war) and the dâr alIslam (the abode of Islam). A permanent state of war existed between the two abodes, although truces, lasting up to a maximum of ten years, were possible. The sole exception were the ‗peoples of the book‘ Christians and Jews, who were permitted to continue their religions, albeit at the price of paying a poll tax and accepting fewer rights than Muslims.

. Islam also laid down various moral principles to be observed in the course of war. Inevitably, as Islam’s internal unity broke down and various nations successfully resisted the advance, the Islamic world had to accept the necessity of peaceful coexistence with unbelievers for rather longer than the ten-year truce. Close commercial links between the two ‗abodes‘ developed. In a noted treaty of . 3.THE EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY

(thus enabling the dangerous and Muslim-controlled land route to be bypassed) The voyages of discovery gave a huge impetus both to the study of international law and to its use in treaties designed to clarify and define more precisely the various entitlements and responsibilities to which the age of discovery had given rise. The first sixteenth-century writings on international law came mainly from Spanish jurists, such as Francisco de Vitoria (c. 1480-1546).

The Papacy was certainly one of these, but one of its chief supporters, the Habsburg Empire, stood for a kind of dynastic hegemony, while the Holy Roman Emperor was less concerned with his traditional religious dimension than with his continuing hold over the many German states, which, in their turn, Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

6 CSS IR 2016: By Shakoor Kakar stood for the new doctrine of sovereign independence.

i. Treaty of Westphalia

Causes: Medieval system was based upon the concept of the knights, which ran around with different kinds of weapons.This sort of thing shifted to large, standing armies. (Give the peasants guns.)This brought programs of training and drilling. All of this brought about the idea of states and reduced the authority of Christendom. This culminated in the Thirty Years . Important things about the Peace of Westphalia .

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. .

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. This all brought about a new "mechanical system" of independent states, along with a system of rules for an international society. These are important concepts for this course: again, a system of sovereign states, and a society of states. ii. The Universalization of The Westphalian System

Empire persisted until 1922 but it was in decline and under immense pressure to accept the European discourses of diplomacy and international law. In 1856 the Ottoman Empire‘s accession to the treaty that brought the Crimean War to a close and brought a temporary truce to the war in Eastern Europe gave the Ottomans a formal place in international society. . Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

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. European colonialism, and later anti-colonial nationalism, was to have just as far-reaching an impact on the shape of the modern international system as the wars of early modern Europe. Somewhat ironically perhaps the reactions to imperialism saw the consolidation of the Westphalian system. Thus . iii. Struggle for Balance Of Power and World Politics With the universalization of the Westphalian system and the sovereign state came the anarchical and anti-hegemonic character of the international system. To say the international system is antihegemonic is to say that it resists any attempt by one actor (a state, or an alliance of states)

. They often try to forge economic alliances that give them a distinct trading advantage. Successive peace settlements clearly responding to this anti-hegemonic principle punctuate the history of modern international politics. This anti-hegemonic struggle culminated into First world war. iv. Anarchical Politics: War, Diplomacy And Law In International Relations

. Each institution is, in essence, a way of dealing with conflicts of interest between sovereign states and each has developed an ever more refined system of rules relating to the management of its subject. All three institutions have a history that goes back well before the modern period. v. Getting Beyond The State: The League of Nations

1917. In January 1918, in a speech to Congress, President Wilson famously set out ‗Fourteen Points. Wilson‘ . His liberal internationalism wanted to move beyond the balance of power politics of anarchical international relations. . The structure of the organization was to set the pattern for the future of international and regional organizations and diplomacy.

vi. The Collapse of The League Of Nations What went wrong? History tells us that the ethos of the League of Nations was shattered by a series of serious political failures.

. One consequence of this was that the European powers consistently failed to use the League‘s potential and often ignored or made scant use of the articles that allowed for decisive Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

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action to be taken against aggressors. . 4. THE GLOBALIZATION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY

The Cold War; two contending hegemonial international societies A significant cause of the League‘s weakness had been the refusal of the American Senate to ratify the post-war Peace Treaty of Versailles (including the League Covenant) and it was largely American determination not to make the same mistake in 1945 that led to a considerably stronger new version of the League in the shape of the United Nations. In practice, however, the UN was very seldom able to play the leading role envisioned for it in the post-war international society, largely because .

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Chapter Two: International Society and System  The vast and important topic of IR “International Society and International System‖ is discussed under the under the below mentioned two broad topics: However the outline will help the student to adopt an organize approach to grasp the topic. 1. Nation State System 2. International Society INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM/Society Outline 1. What is State? Difference between Countries and State Difference between Nation and state 2. Nation-State 3. The Modern State System Features of Modern State i. Sovereignty ii. Nationalism iii. Power 4. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY/System i. What is International Society? ii. CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY/SYSTEM a. Anarchy b. The Pursuit Of Interests c. institutions iii. Globalization of International Society Problems of global international society Introduction This topic is aimed at to introduce four important analytical tools for understanding IR: . Before defining international system, we will have to grasp the basic relationship between sates, nations and countries, then it will be easy to consider how they fit together into a system. It is convenient to discuss all of them in a same topic and in a particular sequence. 1. STATE The most influential collective actors in contemporary IR are states – organisations that claim to govern territories and populations. Theda Skocpol defines states as sets ‗…of administrative, policing, and military organisations headed, and more or less well coordinated by, an executive authority‘ Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

10 CSS IR 2016: By Shakoor Kakar describes a state‘s ability to: control the peoples and territories it claims to rule defend itself States therefore have to deal with at least two priorities: maintaining order within their territorial boundaries by means of bureaucrats and police, and maintaining their independence from other states by means of diplomats and militaries. This definition of sovereignty is broadly accepted in international law. According to Article 1 of the 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, a state must fulfil four requirements in order to qualify as an actor in international law. They must:     A failure to achieve these goals may undermine an actor‘s claim to sovereignty and therefore its claim to statehood. i. Difference between Nation and State Nations and states may seem identical, but they are not.

e. Others want a state but do not have one: Tibetans, Chechnyans, and Palestinians, for example. Some imagined nations are larger than states or cross-state boundaries. The Arab nation embraces more than a dozen states, while the nation of the Kurds takes in large areas of four states. Diplomatic recognition confers legitimacy on a new state (or on the government of a state) but sometimes there is a lack of consensus within the international community. ii. Difference between Countries and State Whereas a state refers to a government and a nation refers to a group of people with a shared identity, a country refers to the lines and symbols on a map that represent borders, geographical features, ecologies and natural resources. The three concepts are closely related. that fall outside their ‗official‘ borders. The government of Somalia, for example, can effectively control only a tiny fraction of the country it claims to rule. These examples illustrate the fact that states and countries, though related, are not synonymous. 2. NATION-STATE Q. Describe and discuss the concept of Nation-State and evaluate its future in the light of certain recent developments. 2009 Q. Evaluate the general view the peace of Westphalia as the founding moment for modern state system. Do you think this system is challenged in the contemporary world? 2013 Shakoor Kakar [email protected]

11 CSS IR 2016: By Shakoor Kakar Introduction The nation state is a state that self-identifies as deriving its political legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign territorial unit. .

The classical nation-states in Northern and Western Europe evolved within the boundaries of existing territorial states. They were part of the European state system that took on a recognisable shape with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. . Often these states, which were founded within the frontiers established by the former colonial regimes, acquired sovereignty before the imported forms of state organisation could take root in a national identity that transcended tribal differences. In these cases, artificial states had first to be filled by a process of nation-building. Finally,

3. THE MODERN STATE SYSTEM Q3. Describe the basic features of modern nation state. What are the dangers to its future? 2010

. This is not to say that there were no states prior to this period. After all, we did have the citystates of ancient Greece, those of Northern Italy, the Germanic tribes that coalesced to form the Heanseatic League etc. states resting on … ―the theory of sovereignty‖.

– . The notion of an independent secular state began to gain currency following its defense and justification by such theorists as Machiavelli, Bodin, Grotius etc.

. Henceforth, German Princes were at liberty to rule as they saw fit, and in religions matters, they were free to choose Calvinism, Lutheranism or Catholicism. Holland and Switzerland were recognized as independent states. Prussia began an expansion that eventually resulted to the establishment of the German empire that survived unto the early 20th century.

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12 CSS IR 2016: By Shakoor Kakar Features of Modern State There are certain basic features of the state system. According to Palmer and Perkins, these are neither inseparable nor adjuncts to it. Rather, they are corollaries to the state system. They include the concept of sovereignty, the doctrine of nationalism and the principle of national power. i. Sovereignty can be understood to be ―the legal theory that gives the state unique and virtually unlimited mestic matters and in its relations with other states‖ and which other institutions do not So irrespective of the size, location or power with which a political entity may be endowed, once the doctrine of sovereignty has been bestowed upon it, it is considered legally equal to every other state in the international system.

. Hans Morgenthau suggests, the nation needs a state, since one nation, one state is the political postulates of nationalism, while the nation-state is its ideal.

. As indicated by some commentators, it is the best guarantor to the inviolability, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the nation-state In its relationship with the state-system, power has been defined in varying ways – ―the power of man over the minds of other men‖, ―the capacity to impose ones will on others by reliance on effective sanctions in case of noncompliance‖, ―the production of intended effects‖. From these conceptions, i 4. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY/System Q: International system creates interactions among states through diplomacy, international law, and economic relat...