Introduction to Communication Inquiry PDF

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Introduction to Communication Inquiry - Final Exam Guide...

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❏ To describe (to understand) - trying to describe what is happening in terms of comm ❏ Burke's Pentad - asks people to look at someone's speech and identify 5 things about the speech (act, purpose of speech, agent, who is acting) ❏ Burke believes that if you can identify the 5 things of the pentad than your able to understand the motive of the speaker better ❏ To explain - answer questions how or why ❏ To predict - some want to predict human comm behaviors ❏ To control - some want to achieve social change (primary goal is to control) ❏ Theory - any conceptual representation or explanation of a phenomenon ❏ Involves concept ❏ Involves explanation ❏ Has 4 primary goals (to explain, predict, control) ❏ What is a comm theory? ❏ Way to describe, explain, predict, and or control human communication behavior - (likes it because its a broad definition that includes the 4 primary goals of the theory)

❏ Reform of society - to persuade us to actually do the change (need to change laws/norms in society)

❏ Episodes - putting a time in the communication transaction ❏ Life scripts -(a lot to do with our field of experience) people have different experiences in their lives which they bring along with them ❏ Cultural patterns - (form of life scripts) our cultural gives rules/norms for behaviors and interpreting meaning ❏ The coordination of meaning ❏ When people attempt to use interpersonal meaning ❏ 3 possible outcomes (coordinate meaning, not coordinate meaning, partially coordinate meaning) ❏ The use of rules in CMM ❏ Descriptions of how to process information ❏ Provide common symbolic framework for comm ❏ Provide opportunity for choice ❏ Constitutive - what a message should mean within given context ❏ Regulative - guidelines for behavior ❏ CMM’s metatheoretical assumptions ❏ Ontological? ❏ Do humans make real choices? ❏ Is human experience basically individual or social? ❏ Is human experience contextualized? ❏ Epistemological? ❏ Axiological?

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❏ Amount/type of info people share changes with time ❏ Behavior can predict in a law-like manner Explanation of URT (axioms/theorems included) ❏ When strangers meet they are unsure about their own thoughts so they are uncertainty - that uncertainty can be either cognitive or behavioral ❏ Because uncertainty is aversive people are motivated to reduce it through comm - so they can explain/predict their own actions and others ❏ Axioms (laws of theory) - a self evident or universally recognized truth ❏ 7 axioms ❏ 1 - as the amount of verbal comm between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship will decrease ❏ 2 - as nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels will decrease ❏ 3 - high levels of uncertainty cause increases in info seeking behavior ❏ 4 - high levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decrease in the intimacy level of comm content ❏ 5 - high levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity ❏ 6 - similarities between persons reduce uncertainty ❏ 7 - increases in uncertainty level produce decreasing in liking ❏ Theorems - general proposition that is not self evident but proved by a chain of reasoning (a truth established by a mean of accepted truth) ❏ Deductive logic - if A is related to B, and B is related to C, then A is related to C ❏ Theorems formed by pairing 2 axioms ❏ 21 theorems Research generated from URT ❏ Expanded in certain ways ❏ Through research some additional axioms have been added which also makes additional theorems Criticisms of URT ❏ Utility - alternative explanations (for primary motivation) ❏ Validity - axiom 3 (regarding info seeking) How URT defines comm ❏ Intentional? ❏ Correspondence? ❏ Successful? ❏ Ethical/honest? ❏ Symbolic actions? ❏ Cognition, thought, perception?

❏ RDT key concepts ❏ Totality - people in relationships are interdependent, social and cultural contexts affect the process ❏ Contradiction - dialectics are the result of oppositions ❏ Motion - relationships are processes and change over time ❏ Praxis - people are choice makers: choice limits choice ❏ Basic interactional dialectics ❏ autonomy & connection - independence vs. intimacy ❏ Openness and protection - vulnerable vs. guarded ❏ Novelty and predictability - excitement vs. stability ❏ Contextual dialectics ❏ Public vs. private ❏ Real vs. ideal ❏ How do people deal with relational dialectics? ❏ Cyclic alternation ❏ Segmentation ❏ Selection ❏ Integration - neutralizing, reframing, disqualifying ❏ Evaluation of RDT ❏ Heuristic - romantic relationships, friendships, workplace relationships ❏ How does RDT define comm? ❏ What are RDT metatheoretical assumptions?

❏ Peoples experiences, knowledge, and comm behaviors are shaped by the social groups to which they belong - standpoint ❏ Gives authority to people’s own voices ❏ History of standpoint theory ❏ George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1807) ❏ German philosopher ❏ Master/slave relationships ❏ One’s view of slavery depended on whether you were a master slave ❏ Karl Marx ❏ Social class shapes access to knowledge ❏ Nancy Hartsock (1983) ❏ Adapted standpoint theory to examine relationships between men and women ❏ Feminist theory ❏ Assumptions of standpoint theory ❏ The social world consists of many different positions within a social hierarchy ❏ A person's location within the class structure shapes and limits that person's perspective on social life ❏ Each person sees society only as it appears from the perspective of his/her social group ❏ The ruling group structures life to remove some choices from subordinate groups ❏ Subordinate group struggles for their vision of social life ❏ Struggle leads to a more accurate vision for subordinate group than ruling group ❏ Marginalized groups see inequalities and can change world for better ❏ Key concepts of ST ❏ Sexual division of labor - men/women engage in different occupations based on sex - exploits women ❏ Standpoint - a location shared by a group within a social structure that lends a particular kind of sense making to a persons lived experience ❏ Situated knowledges - a person’s knowledge is grounded in context and circumstances ❏ Critique of ST ❏ Positives

❏ Heuristic ❏ Provocative ❏ Sparks controversy ❏ Negative ❏ Essentialism ❏ Generalizing to all members of a group making them essentially the same ❏ Metatheoretical assumptions ❏ Ontological? ❏ Do humans make real choices? ❏ Is human experience basically individual or social? ❏ Is human experience contextualized? ❏ Epistemological? ❏ Axiological?

❏ Individualistic (USA) larger cultures closer correspondence with public and private self ❏ Individualistic culture - emphasis in the “I” identity more so than the “we” identity ❏ Collectivistic culture - emphasis teamwork

Exam Notes Review for Final Exam Comm 250: Introduction to Communication Inquiry General Comments and Guidelines · The exam will be multiple choice and true/false questions (no more than 75 questions) · Final exam is cumulative, but the focus of the exam is on material covered since Exam 2 (for every 1 question on OLD material, there will be approximately 4-5 questions on NEW material) · New material covers material (lectures, required readings, class discussions) from Module 8, Module 9, Module 10, and Module 11. · Know names associated with the theories. Dates and chapter/book titles are less important (i.e., I will not test you on dates or titles of articles unless otherwise noted below). · Focus will be on lecture material and material covered Wednesday and Friday in class. Use your readings to supplement what is talked about in lecture. · The exam will require you to know more than just class terms and definitions (although you must know these). You will be asked: (1) to identify examples of the theories acting in “real life” situations; and (2) to apply your understanding of the topics learned for the first exam (i.e., metatheoretical assumptions, theory building and testing) to the theories we discussed up until this point. · Be able to apply cluster analysis to an example of communication. · The Pentad as a special form of cluster analysis. Be able to apply the pentad to an example of communication

Module 8: Public Communication--Rhetoric Classical Rhetorical Theory (Aristotle) History: • Lots of debates over whether good speaking could be taught or was an innate talent • Aristotle said that it would be taught and wrote a public speaking textbook: The Rhetoric. His theories are still used today. Rhetoric: • ***The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques. • Aristotle focuses on oral speaking and finding all possible means of persuasion • Context: teaching everyday citizens to participated in public discourse. ! Context matters How does classical rhetoric fit into the context of public communication? • Aristotle was only interested in public discourse • Rhetorical communication is public and the speaker must consider the audience • Demographics and psychographics important for audience analysis Origins of rhetoric • Ancient Greece and Rome • Early rhetorical theories emerge and taught Greek citizens the basics of persuasion

Aristotle’s role in traditional rhetorical theory • One of Plato’s former students • Wrote a book on persuasion, which focused on public speaking, audience, and speech itself. How did Aristotle define rhetoric? • Aristotle: “the faculty (ability) of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” Goal of classical rhetoric: • To inform • To persuade • To entertain Assumptions of Aristotle’s rhetoric: • Rhetoric is designed to influence the best or more appropriate form of influence or persuasion ! Context must be considered in order to best persuade the audience What are rhetoric’s concepts? • Appropriate form of persuasion (must consider the context) • It is public (must consider the audience) • Communication is intentional (speakers must intend to influence their audience) • It’s a prescriptive art • Rely on proofs (evidence) What are proofs? • Means of persuasion and tools for persuasion Types of proofs 1) Artistic proofs: -Things that the speaker creates in the audience -The way the speak influence on his speech: ethos, pathos, logos 2) Inartistic proofs -Things that are -Things you can use in your speech: facts, statistics, laws, contract, and testimony What is/are the difference(s) between artistic and inartistic proofs? Be able to provide examples of each. -Artistic proofs are ethos, pathos, and logos -Intrinsic proofs are facts, statistic, laws, contract, and testimony What are ethos, logos, and pathos? Ethos: the moral character of the speaker • Credibility of the speakers • Established through competence and reputation of the speaker • Creates good will within the audience Pathos: Emotion aroused in the audience

• Emotions of the speech • Best way to persuade someone is through their emotions Logos: Logical argument in the speech • Emphasized because it is the most straight forward to teach as a skill • Aristotle developed two types of logical proofs: examples and enthymemes How do they relate to artistic proofs? What are logical artistic proofs (e.g. enthymemes and examples)? Examples • Rhetorical Induction • A specific claim to a general conclusion that can be factual or invented • If a board claim use examples to make claim clearer Enthymemes 1) Based on syllogism or deductive argument 2) Leave one part out for the audience to fill in ! ex. Leaves minor premise out or ANY of the 3 parts • These types of arguments are strong because the audience is directly participating meaning it is more applicable because the audience had a part in creating the meaning What is the difference between an enthymeme and a rhetorical syllogism? Be able to provide examples. Syllogism • A deductive argument and a logical argument • Syllogism is a form of an argument !Major Premise: all men are mortal !Minor premise: Socrates is a man !Conclusion: therefore, Socrates is mortal What kinds of speech are there? Forensic -Accusation and defense used in courts and the floor of law -Deals with the past Epideictic -Ceremonial speeches of praise and blame, given at community events -Deals with the present Deliberative -What should or shouldn’t be done, used in politics and law making -Deals with the future

What is the rhetorical canon (e.g., invention, arrangement, style, delivery, memory)? According to classical rhetorical theory, how do we use communication to persuade people? • The rhetorical canon is a 5 part process for putting a good speech together • Inventory- thinking of all the available means of persuasion • Arrangement- organizing the component effectively • Style- expression, flair, how you talk • Delivery- voice, non-verbal’s • Memory- how you learn the speech Persuasions Assumptions • Good persuasion should find the best way to influence the audience • Speakers design their messages to achieve their goals ! Communication is intentional ❖ Persuasion can be learned and following the rules can help ❖ Effective speakers use a variety of proofs as evidence Evaluation of classical rhetorical theory Positives -Heuristic: generated thousands of years of research -Valid: people can use this to make good speeches Negatives -Ethics: doesn’t deal with mortality -Narrow in scope other features may explain why people get persuaded How does classical rhetorical theory define communication? Relate to issues involved in defining communication. • Successful: the whole point of the theory is to create a speech that will persuade people • Intentional and human to human What are Aristotle’s metatheoretical assumptions? Ontological • Communication is a choice • Communication is a social endeavor, we make our own interpretation of the speech • Context matters and is very important Epistemological • No knowledge before experience • Knowledge cannot be certain • By what process does knowledge arise? • Knowledge is best conceived in parts

Axiological • Values matter • The process of inquiry does influence that which is studied • Attempts to achieve social change •

All rhetoricians are humanists

If you had to categorize Aristotle’s Rhetoric, what type of scholarship is it? • Humanistic Under what communication context does it fall? • Public/Rhetorical Under what communication tradition would it fall? • This is a humanistic theory • Rhetorical

Contemporary Rhetorical Theory-Dramatism (Burke) Differences between traditional and contemporary rhetoric Traditional Rhetoricians believe that rhetoric is: -Public communication -Intentional -A prescriptive art -Persuasion Contemporary Rhetoricians believe that rhetoric is: -All of the above AND -Rhetoric involves analysis/criticism of human symbolic behavior Definition of rhetoric = a symbolic means of including cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols Dramatism (Kenneth Burke 1930s-1980s) • A method of analysis and a corresponding critique of terminology designed to show that the most direct route to the study of human relations and human motives is via a methodical inquiry to cycles or clusters of terms and their functions Why Dramatism? • At the time most thought of conflict or completion as an essential human motivation • Burke the literal critic proposed thinking of conflict as part of drama and not a war. Goals of Dramatism • Explain human symbolic action • Help people use language to change the world ! social change Assumptions of Dramatism and CRT • Humans use symbols or language to create social meaning

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Humans are choice makers By studying human symbol use we learn about human behavior (most important)

Key concepts Identification: Humans are primarily motivated by their desire to connect • Rhetoric is not so much about persuasion, as it is about identification (connecting with others) Symbols • Humans are beings who by nature respond to symbols • “Symbols-using animals” • To understand humans and their attempts to connect we should study their symbol use Attitude 1) How we name something (the symbols we assign to it) indicated out attitude towards it 2) The way you’re looking draws attention to something and hides others 3) Has corresponding behaviors Terministic Screens • Web of terms • Overlap • Created socially • The names from attitudes are arranged into terministic screens Pentad • Act: that which is done by a person • Agent: the person preforming the act • Agency: the means used to preform the act • Scene: the context surrounding the act • Purpose: the goal the agent had for the act Cluster analysis: • To see how terms are arranged into terministic screens, Burke developed Cluster analysis Procedure: • Find key terms • Look at the words that are used as synonyms and adjectives for those key terms • Analyze what implications those terms have What does cluster analysis help researchers understand? • Helps you understand attitudes about humans How does Burke advocate social change? Assumption: humans create social order by arranging terms • So, to change our social world we need to 1) change terms 2) change associations

What is the difference between action and motion? • Humans make symbolic meaning of the things they do (action), but some things happen without purpose (motion) • Biological drives are motion • Action involves choice • We should study the action ! dramatism is about what we can change Critique of Dramatism Positives • Heurism • Test of time Negatives • Scope -Human motivation -all of human communication -too broad • Parsimony -wrote 14 books and hundreds of articles -a philosophy of human communication How does Burke define communication? • Intentional • Correspondence • Successful • Symbolic Action What are Burke’s metatheoretical assumptions? Ontological • Humans have choices • Communication is a social interaction • Context matters, people use different language Epistemological • Social constructivism • Knowledge cannot exist before experience • Knowledge is best conceived in wholes • Knowledge is not certain and there are multiple meanings Axiological • Values play a role • Attempt to achieve social change • The process of inquiry influences that which is studied If you had to categorize Dramatism, what type of scholarship is it? • Humanistic

Under what communication context does it fall? • Public/rhetorical Under what communication tradition would it fall? • Rhetorical

Module 9: Public Communication--Media Theories Spiral of Silence Theory: Elisabeth Noelle-Neuman (1974) • •

How the media influence public opinion What happens when people express their opinions on topics which the media have defined for us What is the goal (purpose) of SST? 1) To explain how the media affect the direction of public discourse on socially significant issues 2) To predict how perceived public opinion can influence individual opinion expression. Predictions: • Those who perceive they hold the majority viewpoint will speak freely about their opinions • Those who perceive they hold the minority viewpoint will remain silent in fear of isolation What assumptions guide SST? • Society threatens individuals with isolation • Fear of isolation is persuasive • People are constant assessors of the climate of public opinion

What are SST’s concepts? Public (3 meanings) • Public suggest that it is open to everyone (public space) • Public pertains to the concerns of people (public duty of a journalist) • Public represents the social-psychological side of people (people adjust their behaviors according to their observation of public views) ! Public opinion is a dynamic process ! The collective sentiments of a population on a particular subject Opinion • Verbal expressions of attitudes • Vary in intensity and stability • A level of agreement of a particular population Public Opinion • Attitude or behaviors one must express in public, if one is not to be isolated • It provides norms and rules people should obey by Personal Observation • Quasi- statistical sense • Pluralistic ignorance

Media • Public behavior is affected by public opini...