Introductory Psychology Study Notes PDF

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Succinct set of summary notes for all lecture and tutorial content from Introductory Psychology, including summaries of all experiments. Perfect study material for the mid-semester and final exams. ...

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1.#Introduction#to#Psychology# Psychology:"" Scientific"investigation"of"mental#processes"(thoughts,"emotions)"&"behaviour" " Clinical#Perspectives#In#Psychology:" Psychology"="based"on"scientific#methodà"experimental#control"+"strict" measurement# " Stress"Disorders" 10%"of"trauma"survivors"develop"PSTD"" • Characterised"by:" o Distressing"memories" o Anxiety" o Avoidance"of"reminders" • Managing"stress"responses:" o Past"practice"of"psychological#debriefing"(trauma"counseling)" § Within"48#hours"of"trauma"exposure"à"to"prevent#PTSD" § Is"ineffective:"ignored"principles"of"scientific"method""

" Scientific"Method"–"Randomised"Controlled"Trials" Random#Allocation# • Avoid"biased"allocation"to"treatment"condition" • Control#condition:"can"only#infer"treatment"effectiveness "if"compared"to" placebo" Independent/Blind#Assessment# • Double#Blind:"patients"&"clinicians"are"unaware"of"treatment"condition" allocation" Standardised#Assessment# • Properly#developed"measurement#tools"to"measure"constructs"over"time" Strict#Protocols#for#Intervention# • Quality#Checks:"check"procedures#are"followed"properly" o Treatment#Fidelity#Checks# Ensure#Interventions#are#Valid# " Psychological"Evidence:"Trauma"Response" Classical#Conditioning# • Learnt#association:"environmental#stimuli#predicts#harmful#events# Fear#Conditioning#Models# • Trauma"(e.g."electrocution)à"fear#(rat’s"fright)" • Trauma#reminders"(e.g."light)"à"distress#(e.g."fear"of"light)" Extinction#Treatment:#Exposure#Therapy" • New#learning#à"stimuli#repeatedly"presented#without#a#negative#outcome#à" stimuli"now"signals"safety" o Neurobiological#Model#of#Extinction"(based"on"rats)" o Same"brain"regions"underpinning"extinction"in"rats"predict"exposure" therapy"for"fear"in"humans" # # # # # # # Neurotransmitters"&"Learning" Glutamate:"major#excitatory#neurotransmitter"linked"to"emotional"learning" • Animal"studies:" o Increasing#glutamate"before"extinction"trials"à"increased#extinction" learning"in"rats" o Improved"therapy"for"anxiety"

2.#Psychological#Perspectives" Goals"of"Psychological"Perspectives:" • Describe"behaviour" • Predict"behaviour"(conditions"under"which"behaviour"will/will"not"occur)" • Explain#causes"of"behaviour" • Facilitate#changes"in"behaviour"(therapy)" " Introspection" • Phenomenology:"examining"one’s"own"conscious"experience" • Metaphor:"looking#inwards" • Wilhelm#Wundt" o “Tell%me%what%comes%into%your%head%when%you%look%at%this%object”%# • Failed"à"people’s"self-reports"="unreliable" " Functionalism" • Analysis"of#psychological#processes#in"terms"of"their#function# o E.g."process"of"attention"serves"to"focus"analysis"on"certain"stimuli# o Consistent"w/"evolutionary#framework# • Philosopher"Jerry#Fodor"à"task#=#software#algorithm# o Task"could"be#implemented#on"any#information-processing#system"# " Behaviourism" • Study:#stimulus#&"produced#behaviour"# o Develop"basic"rules"why"behaviours"were"produced# o No"hypothesis"of"what"happens"btw"stimulus"&"behaviour# Radical#Behaviourism# • Only"observable#behaviour"qualified"as"scientific"" o “Internal#states”"(thoughts,"emotions)"="unobservable"# • BF#Skinner"&"John#Watson# Methodological#Behaviourism# • Study"“internal#states”"(thoughts,"emotions)"only"if"linked"to"observable# behaviours# o E.g."internal"state"of"memory"(stimulus"à"behaviour"of"recalling" stimulus)# • Edward#Tolman# " Psychoanalysis" • Freud:"many important#psychological#events"="unconscious"# • Details"of"theory"="unsupported# o BUT"–"current"psychology"accepts"many"psychological#processes" proceed"w/out#full#conscious#awareness# " Psychology"As"A"Natural"Science" • Empirical:"based"on"systematic#observation"# • Experiments:"manipulate#1#variable#to"observe"effect"on"another"" • Analysis:"examine"data"to"determine#conclusions"that"can"be"drawn" • Theory:"used"to"generate#predictions"&"summarise"existing"knowledge## • Public:"results"are"subject#to#review#by#others## " 3.#Personality" Scientific"Definition"of"Personality" 1. Individual#differences#btw#people"(thoughts,"emotions"&"behaviours)" 2. Distinct#from#intellectual#ability"

3. Enduring#dispositions"à"aspects"of"personality"endure"from"childhood"to" adulthood" 4. Generalised#patterns#of#responding#à"act"same"way"in"most"situations" 5. Encompasses#underlying#psychological#mechanisms" " Overview"of"Major"Personality"Theories" Psychoanalytic#Approaches# • Unconscious"mind" • Intrapsychic"conflict"à"2"competing"desires" Trait#Approaches# • How"people"differ#psychologically"(important"features)" • How"to"measure"&"conceptualise"these"constructs" Genetic#Approaches# • Genes#+#environment#=#personality" Phenomenological#Approaches# • Focus"on"individual#experience"à"being"the"best"possible"person" Behaviourist#Approaches# • Personality"="shaped"by"rewards,"punishment"&"expectations" " Where"Does"Personality"Psychology"Fit"Into"Field"Of"Psychology?" • Focus"on"individual#differences"btw"people"(not"universal"responses)" • Focus"on"whole#persons"in"their"daily#environments"" • Distinct#from#social#psychology# o Studies"internal#influences"(personality)"on"T,"E"&"B"vs."external" influences" o Stability#in"patterns#of#responding"(personality)"vs."malleability" • Distinct#from#clinical#psychology" o But"some"overlap"à"e.g."Personality"Disorders" " Psychoanalytic#Approaches:# 1."Source"of"mental"disorder"stems#from#the#unconscious# 2."Mind"="place"of"conflict# 3."Emphasis"on"childhood#experiences# 4."Emphasis"on#sexuality#

" Topographic"Model" Conscious"(Smallest"Level)"ß"‘tip"of"the"iceberg’" • Thoughts,"perceptions" Preconscious"(Mid-Level)"ß"has"conscious#access"to"this" • Memories,"stored"knowledge"" Unconscious"(Largest"Level)"" • Censor#locks#things"in"unconscious;"stops"them"becoming"conscious" o Fears,"sexual"desires,"immoral"urges" • Repression:"censor"successfully"holding"items"in"the"unconscious# Goal"of"psychoanalysis:" • Get"past#the#censor"&"discover"what"is"occurring"at"unconscious"level" o Unconscious#conflict"à"mental#disorders" Dreams# • Latent#Content:"hidden#meaning"stemming"from"the"unconscious" • Manifest#Content:"events#that"occurred"in"the"dream" Slips# • Freudian"slips"reveal"unconscious"desires,"e.g."clit/clip" "

Structural"Model" Id:" • Pleasure#principle"à"immediate"gratification# o Motivations:"sex"(Eros)"&"death"(Thanatos)# o Operated"by"primary#process"(cannot"be"reasoned"w/)# Ego:" • Reality#principle"à"mediate"btw"Id/Superego"" o Operated"by"secondary#process"(concerned"w/"reason"&"logic)" Ego#Defence#Mechanisms:"" • Projection:"attributing#unwanted#behaviour"to"someone#else" o E.g."False"Consensus"Effect# • Reaction#Formation:"converting#a#socially#unacceptable#impulse"into#its# opposite# o Evidence:"Adams,"Wright"&"Lohr"(1996)"&"Morokoff"(1985)" § Homophobic/sex-negative"people"showed"greatest"sexual" arousal"to"gay/hetero"pornography" • Displacement:"satisfying#an#impulse#on#a#substitute#object" o E.g."“Kicking"the"dog”"phenomenon" • Isolation:"putting#mental#spaces"btw#a#threating#cognition#&#other#aspects# of#the#self# o Temporal#Bracketing:"sharp"delineation"btw#2#periods"in"one’s"life# § E.g."“Born"Again”"religious"conversion# • Sublimation:"rechanneling#an#impulse#into#a#more#socially#appropriate# outlet# o E.g."turning"sexual"desire"into"art;"no"scientific"evidence# Superego:" • Idealism#principle"à"internalised"standards,"morals"&"values" " The"Ego"Mediates"Id/Superego"Conflict"By:" 1. Secondary#Process# o Reason"&"logic;"appease"both"parts"of"the"mind"à"ideal# 2. Defence#Mechanisms# o Cope"w/"internal"conflict" 3. Neurotic#Symptoms# o Occurs"when"secondary#process"&"defense#mechanisms#fail# " Topographic"&"Structural"Models"Combined" • Id#="unconscious# • Superego#="all#3#levels"à"internalisation"of"society’s"standards/norms"# • Ego#="all#3#levels"à"aspects"of"ourselves"that"we"don’t"fully"understand"vs." preconscious"storage"&"conscious"processes# " The"Developmental"Model"–"Psychosexual"Stages" Oral#Stage#(0-2"Years)" • Pleasure#Source:"sucking,"biting,"swallowing" • Conflict/Effect#of#Fixation:"weaning"from"mother’s"breast;"passive"dependence;" excessive"smoking/eating" Anal#Stage#(2-4"Years)" • Pleasure#Source:"defecating"or"retaining"feces" • Conflict/Effect#of#Fixation:"toilet"training;"self-control;"retentive"(obsessive," neatness);"expulsive"(reckless,"disorganised)" Phallic#Stage#(4-5"Years)" • Pleasure#Source:"genitals"

Conflict/Effect#of#Fixation:"Oedipus"Complex;"Castration"Anxiety"(boys);" Electra"Complex;"Penis"Envy"(girls)"" Latency#Stage#(6-Puberty)" • Pleasure#Source:"sexual"urges"sublimated"into"sports"&"hobbies" • Conflict/Effect#of#Fixation:"same-sex"friendships"help"avoid"sexual"feelings;" usually"no"fixation"but"if"so"–"sexual"immaturity"&"dissatisfaction"" Genital#Stage#(Puberty"onward)" • Pleasure#Source:"physical"changes"awaken"repressed"needs;"direct"sexual" feelings"towards"others"lead"to"sexual"gratification" • Conflict/Effect#of#Fixation:"social"rules;"frigidity;"impotence;"unsatisfactory" relationships" Fixation:"staying#in#1#place#too#long# " Critique"Of"Psychoanalysis" • Freud’s"account#of#motivation#à #reliance#on#2#instincts#(sex#&#death)" o Do"not"account"for"all"of"human"motivation" • Inference#problems# o Arbitrary,"unreliable"judgments"&"explanations" • Based"on#“soft”#evidence"" o Unobservable#&"unmeasurable"data#open#to#interpretation#(e.g." dreams;"Id,"Ego,"Superego)" • Falsifiability#problems" o Karl#Popper#à"evidence"cannot"be"proven"false" # Contribution"Of"Psychoanalysis" • Unconscious"mental"processes"" • Early#development"is"important" • Conflict"between"unconscious/conscious"processes" • Body"as"a"source"of"pleasure"&"shame" • Some"defence#mechanisms" " Behaviourist#Approaches:" • Personality:"observable"&"measureable;"sum-total#of#behaviours" • Believe"personality"is"malleable"(environment#determines#personality)" Radical#Behaviourism# • Understand"functional#relationship"btw"behaviour"&"its"consequences" • Contents"of"the"organism"are#not#important#in"explaining"behaviour" • 3"variables:" 1. Stimulus" 2. Response" 3. Reinforcement" Moderate#Behaviourism# • Contents"of"the"organism"are"important#in"explaining"behaviour" o Describe#activities"inside"the"organism"(e.g."habits,"motives," expectancies,"thoughts)" " Classical"Conditioning" Innate"response"to"a"potent"stimulus"(US)"comes"to"be"elicited"in"response"to"a" previously"neutral"stimulus"(CS)" • Unconditioned#stimulus#(US)# o Food"in"example#(biologically"relevant"stimulus)# • Unconditioned#response#(UR)" o Salivation"in"example"(unlearned"response"to"US)" •

•

•

Conditioned#stimulus#(CS)" o Bell#ringing"in"example"(alerts"the"arrival"of"the"US)" o A"neutral"stimulus"that"does"not"initially"elicit"the"UR" Conditioned#response#(CR)" o Salivation"in"example"(response"to"CS"after"learning)"

" Instrumental"Conditioning" Associations"between"behaviour"&"consequences" • Reinforcement#–"something"which"increases#behaviour# o Positive#reinforcement"="strengthens"a"behaviour"by"delivering"a" positive"consequence# § Study"hard"to"get"a"good"mark# o Negative#reinforcement"="strengthens"a"behaviour"by"preventing"a" negative"consequence"# § Study"hard"to"prevent"failure# • Punishment#–"something"which"decreases#behaviour# o Positive#punishment"="decreases"a"behaviour"by"delivering"a"negative" consequence# § Speeding"="fine"by"police" o Negative#punishment"="decreases"a"behaviour"by"preventing"a"positive" consequence# § Child"misbehaves"="toy"taken"away# " Two-Stage"Theory"Of"Phobias" • Phobias"="acquired"by"classical#conditioning"(neutral#US"+"CS#that#produces# fear)" • Phobias"="maintained"by"instrumental#conditioning" o Each"time"phobic"object"="avoided,"negative#reinforcement#occurs## " Classical"Conditioning"–"Phobias,"Extinction"&"Treatments" • Little#Albert:"conditioned"phobia"of"furry"objects" Extinguishing"fears"&"learnt"associations:" • Extinction:"repeated"exposure"to"CS"w/out"US" • Systematic#Desensitisation:"pair"fear"stimulus"(i.e."dog)"w/"incompatible" response"(i.e."relaxation)" o E.g.#Aversion#Therapy#for#smoking" o Pair"smoking"w/"nausea""(put"nauseating"substance"on"cigarette)"instead" of"smoking"w/"pleasure" " Schedules"Of"Reinforcement" • Variable#="don’t#know"when"outcome"will"occur# • Fixed#="know"when"outcome"will"occur# • Interval#="outcome"occurs"after"specific#amount"of"time"passes# • Ratio#="outcome"occurs"after"specific#amount#of#responses"made# o Variable#ratio"="best"way"to"influence"instrumental"conditioning"" § Most"difficult"to"extinguish" § Case"Study:"pokies"(variable"="harder"to"quit"than"fixed)" " Humanistic#Approaches:" • Focus"on"phenomenology#(subjective"experience)" • Free#will" • Life#meaning"is"important"(influenced"by"existential"philosophers)" • Optimistic#view"of"humanity"

" Carl"Rogers"–"Effects"Of"Culture"On"Personality" • Cultural#influences"="major"factor"in"distorting#inherent"goodness"à"evil" behaviours# o Emphasis"on"materialism#(à"unhappiness)" # Rogers’"Theory"Of"Personality" • Actualising#Tendency:"built-in#motivation"to"develop"potentials"to"the"fullest# extent#possible# • Organismic#Valuing#Process:#attracts"people"to"growth-producing" experiences"&"away"from"growth"inhibiting"experiences# • Positive#Regard:#all"human"beings"need"to"experience"love,"affection," attention# o Humans"develop"an"ideal#self"&"a"real#self"based"on"the"conditional# status"of"positive"regard# § Incongruence"btw"real"self"&"ideal"self"à"neurosis" • Positive#Self-Regard:#positive#self-esteem,"self-worth# o Can"be"conditional"or"unconditional# " Rogers:"The"Fully"Functioning"Person" 1. Openness#to#experience# o Receptive"to"the"objective"&"subjective"happenings"in"life" 2. Existential#living# o Mindfulness;"living#fully"in"each"moment" 3. Organismic#trusting# o Allows"themselves"to"be"guided"by"the"organismic#valuing#process" 4. Experiential#freedom# o Feel#free"when"they"have"choices" 5. Creativity" o Adapting"to"new"situations;"creative#expressions# " Rogers’"Creative"Environment" • Facilitates"openness#to#experience" • Facilitates"internal#locus#of#evaluation"(not"looking"to"society"for"approval)" • Provides"the"ability#to#engage#w/#conceptual#ideas# o Alternative#ways"of"problem-solving" " Rogers:"Necessary"&"Sufficient"Conditions"For"Psychotherapeutic"Change" 1. Therapist#congruence"(therapist"="honest"w/"client)" 2. Unconditional#positive#regard# 3. Empathetic#understanding# # Maslow’s"Theory"–"Universal"Hierarchy"Of"Basic"Needs" " "

Must%actualise%what%exists%inside%them%as%a% potential%

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Mastery,%achievement%

"White"IQ">"African"American"IQ" " Environment"&"Intelligence" • Intelligence#varies#w/## o SES#(going"from"low"to"high"SES"increases"IQ"by"1SD)# o Education#(2.7"IQ"pt."advantage"for"each"year"of"schooling;"5"pt."decrease" for"each"year"of"delay)" " Trait"Perspectives:"Early"History"&"Theories" • 4#body#humors#determined#personality"(blood;"yellow"bile;"black"bile;" phlegm)# • Phrenology:"bumps#on#skull"determined"personality" • Sheldon’s#Body#Types:# o Endomorph"(fat,"jovial,"loves"food)" o Ectomorph"(thin,"intellectual,"weak)" o Mesomorph"(athletic,"aggressive)" " Trait"Theories" Traits"that"fall#in#extremes"="most"noticeable"à"discernable#personality" " The"Big"5"Super"Traits" • Genetic#basis,"but"also"individual#differences"(environment"influences)" 1. Openness#to#experience:"Knowledgeable;"Perceptive;"Imaginative" 2. Conscientiousness:"Neat;"Planning;"Careful" 3. Extraversion:"Gregarious;"Outspoken;"Energetic" § Opposite:"Introversion" 4. Agreeableness:"Considerate;"Nice" § Opposite:"Antagonism" 5. Neuroticism:"Nervous;"Tense;"Fearful" § Opposite:"Emotional#Stability" " Criticisms"Of"The"Big"5" • Are"there"really"more/less"‘super"traits’?"

• Are"the"sub-traits"best"for"predicting"personality?" " Does"The"Big"5"Predict"Behaviour?" • Openness#à"desire"artistic"expression;"devalue"traditional"marriage;"more" arrests"" • Conscientiousness#à"ban"household"smoking;"avoid"unsafe"sex;"live"longer" (less"risk-taking)" • Extraversion#à"greater"prominence"in"groups,"greater"peer"acceptance"in" adolescents,"firm"handshake;"less"cooperative" • Agreeableness#à"more"empathetic"parents;"less"revenge"seeking;"greater" control"of"negative"emotions" • Neuroticismà"less"satisfied"with"life;"anxiety"&"depression;"poor"romantic" relationships" " Interactionist"Perspectives" • People"choose#their#social#(&"sometimes"physical)"environments"(friendships," activities)"to"match"their"personality" " Brunswik’s"Lens"Model" • Use"physical#surroundings"to"infer"personality"traits" o Behavioural#residue:"remnants"of"personality-induced#behaviours" § E.g."Conscientiousness"à"clean/organised"space" o Identity#claims:"remind#us"&"others#of#who#we#are" § E.g."Extraversion"à"photos"of"self"w/"friends" • The#“Office#Space”#Study#[Gosling"et."al"(2002)]" o Accurately"judge#extraversion,#openness#&#conscientiousness#from" office"spaces" o Bedrooms#à"all"5"traits" o Facebook#à"all"traits"except"neuroticism"(people"tend"not"to"post"–ve" content)" " Minimal"Information"Judgments" Location#Determining#Personality# • Robert#Levine#à"fast#vs.#slow-paced#nations#(pace"of"walking,"accuracy"of" clocks,"time"to"buy"post-stamp)" o Indicators#of#how#culture#values#time# Handshaking#&#First#Impressions# • Firm#shakers"="more"extraverted,"high"in"openness# • Weak#shakers"="more"introverted,"more"neurotic# " Animals"&"Genetic"Personality" • Darwin"(1872):"animals"have"emotions;"forged"through"natural#selection"(e.g." angry"when"fighting"over"food)" • The#Dog#Study"(Gosling"et"al,"2003)" § Big#4"(no"conscientiousness)"accurately#observed"in"dogs"" • Conscientiousness"="only"in"chimpanzees"(later#evolutionary#appearance)" " 4.#Cultural#Psychology# Cultural#Psychology" • Culture:"shared"values,"beliefs,"attitudes"&"behaviours" o Filter"through"which"we"view"reality" o Learnt"consciously"&"unconsciously" o Stable,"but"slowly"changes"over"time"

" How"Does"Culture"Emerge?" Evolution:" • Mutually#supportive#behaviour"="beneficial"à"survival"&"reproduction" • Evidence:" o Universal#values"(equity,"fairness,"murder"is"wrong)" • Problem:"circular#reasoning"(culture"à"valued"behaviours"à"culture)" Certainty:" • Desire"for"verifiable#knowledge"about"the"world"à"create"a"shared#reality" o Common"beliefs,"expectations"&"rules" • Evidence:" o Conformity#studies#(desire"to"conform"to"others’"behaviour)" o Memory#studies#(changed"story"plot"to"fit"own"world"view)" Terror#Management#Theory:" • Fear"of"immortality"à"create"shared"reality"w/"meaning"&"purpose" o Standards"of"expected"behaviour" • Evidence:" o Literal:"religion# o Symbolic:"art,"music,"film,"language,"surnames# " How"Is"Culture"Defined?" Dynamic#Social#Impact#Theory# • Why"norms#differ"amongst"cultures# • Spread"of"ideas"affected"by"4"factors:# o Population#size"(more"people"="more"likely"ideas"spread)# o Proximity"(closer"="faster"spread)# o Persuasiveness#(in"instigating"change)"# o Proneness#to#change#(whether"ideas"="prone"to"change"or"not)# § Heritability"of"ideas"(twin"studies"à"consistency"of"death" penalty"opinions)# " Measurement"Of"Culture" Quasi-Experimental#Design:"must"measure#preexisting#groups## • Cannot"randomly"assign"participants"to"cultural"conditions" Hofstede’s#6#Cultural#Dimensions:" • Individualism#vs.#Collectivism# o Individualism:"independence,"competitive,"autonomous,"uniqueness# o Collectivism:"conformity,"interdependence" • Power#Distance## o Degree"to"which"people"accept"unequal#distribution#of#power# • Uncertainty#Avoidance## o Extent"to"which"threats#from#uncertainty"à"culture"to#develop"rules," less"tolerance"to"change,"more"belief"in"absolute"truths# • Quantity#vs.#Quality#Of#Life## o Quantity:"assertive,"financial"focus,"performance# o Quality:"cooperation,"care"for"the"weak,"solidarity"" • Pragmatism#&#Time#Orientation## o Short-Term:"past-present"orientation"à"tradition,"social"obligations# o Long-Term:"future"orientation"à"persistence,"thrift# • Indulgence#vs.#Restraint# o The"extent"of"control"of"desires"&"impulses"# Critiques#of#Hofstede:" • Self#report"–"many"aspects"of"culture"exist"outside"of"self-awareness""

• Assumes#culture#is#static"(it’s"not)"" Inventories#–#Item#Choice# o Test#items#="different#meanings#in"different"languages# § E.g."self-harm"(Indigenous"="“sorry"cuts”# § E.g."experience"visi...