Knowledge Of Results Experiment {APA FORMAT} PDF

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Knowledge of Results Abhiraj Sharma Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences PSYC153: Basics of Psychology Mr. Jalendu Dhamija 29th December 2021

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS AIM

To assess the effect of knowledge of results on individual performance

Introduction

Learning is defined as a generally permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of experience and cannot be attributed to momentary body states like those caused by disease, exhaustion, or medications. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning are the three main methods of learning. Classical and operant conditioning are both types of associative learning, in which people make connections between events that happen at the same time. Observational learning is exactly what it sounds like: learning from others. Conditioning in the traditional sense Classical conditioning is a learning process in which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that occur frequently together and hence learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov famously trained (or conditioned) dogs to identify the sound of a bell with the appearance of a piece of meat in a study involving dogs. When the sound of the bell causes the dog to salivate in anticipation of the meat, the conditioning is complete. Conditioning on the field The learning process by which behaviours are reinforced or penalised, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response, is known as operant conditioning. The term "law of effect" was coined by Edward Thorndike, which states that behaviours that are followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated, whereas behaviours that are followed by painful consequences are less likely to be repeated. B. F. Skinner studied operant training by experimenting with rats in a "Skinner box." The

rats eventually learnt that stepping on the lever resulted in food being released, indicating that behaviour can be controlled by rewards or penalties. He discussed the differences between positive and negative reinforcement, as well as the concept of extinction. Learning via Observation Observational learning happens when people see and imitate the actions of others, even if there is no immediate reinforcement. Albert Bandura observed that children learn by imitating adults, and he put his idea to the test with his famous Bobodoll experiment. Bandura discovered that youngsters will assault the Bobo doll if they saw adults striking it in this experiment.

There are few factors that affects the learning process of an individual and they are :

Intelligence Children's learning capacity is positively associated to IQ, according to research. What one learns, how well one learns, and the many methods in which one seeks engagement in the learning process are all influenced by the level of intelligence on which one is high in terms of manifestation. Thus, regardless of how we define intelligence in terms of learning, there is no denying that it has an impact on what, when, and how we learn.

Motivation Motivation is an academic fact that plays a critical part in learning. In fact, it aids in the activation, direction, and maintenance of learning. In some ways, motivation is a measure of a person's drive to learn. Appropriate motivation not only initiates the behaviours that lead to learning, but also sustains and leads them. It is thus an essential component of learning promotion, as it energises and speeds the process while also eliciting a very favourable response from the learner.

Maturation for Readiness to Learn

The readiness and willpower of a learner to learn is a major determinant of his or her learning outcomes. It is assumed that if a person has a strong desire to learn, he or she will naturally seek out opportunities to do so. To put it another way, the student must be mature enough to learn a specific skill or task. This indicates that for each individual, there is an ideal or most acceptable period to acquire a given skill or topic quickly and effectively. Emotions It is common knowledge that our emotions play an important part in influencing and driving our behaviour.

Emotions Emotional and cognitive relationships are complex and bidirectional. We can claim that emotions have a beneficial and bad impact on learning. The learning process can be improved when a student experiences good feelings. The learning process might be disrupted when a student is experiencing unpleasant emotions.

Interests Interests are deep-seated constructs that are defined by an individual's need structure. Teachers frequently remark to parents at Parent Teacher Meetings that their children may excel in school if they are interested in learning. You could have also heard students say things like "Hindi is so dull," "I just can't study physics since the subject matter doesn't interest me," or "why should I go to the cricket match if I don't like cricket?" One of the most essential factors that mediates learning and drives learners to act is interest. There can be no learning without curiosity, as the instances above demonstrate.

Attitudes Many of our likes and dislikes, as well as our ideas and opinions, predisposition us to act in various ways. The motivational components of a person's positive or negative propensity are significant. When students have a good attitude toward school, it not only means that they will like it, but it also means that they will strive to do well, to be liked by the teachers, and to conform to the school's culture, goals, and expectations.

Self-Concept In the context of learning, an individual's'self concept' is critical because it indicates how he or she thinks about himself and his or her capacities to perform and succeed. Self-efficacy (the ability to accept responsibility for one's actions and the consequences of those actions) is critical for learning since it leads to increased effort, perseverance, and learning even when faced with setbacks.

Learning Styles Various learning environments are preferred by different people. These are referred to as learning styles or preferences. Learning style theories acknowledge that people learn in different ways and that each person has a distinct learning style.

Knowledge of results (KR; KOR) information that has been verbalised (or that can be verbalised) concerning the consequence of a response in connection to the goal According to learning theory, a student benefits the most from having this knowledge available right away (e.g., about the accuracy of responses on a test or the speed and accuracy of a movement or an action sequence). While knowing the results is important for guiding acquisition, too much input can hinder an individual from developing an internal picture of what is appropriate behaviour.

Review of literature

Summary knowledge of results (KR) involves the presentation KR for each of a set of trials (eg, 10) only after the last trial in the set has been completed. Earlier, Lavery (1962) showed that, relative to providing KR after each trial, a 20-trial summary KR was detrimental to performance in a practice phase with KR present but was beneficial for a no-KR retention test. Using a relatively simple

ballistic-timing task, we examined summary lengths of 1 (essentially KR after every trial). 5, 10, and 15 trials, searching for an inverted-U relationship between summary length and retention performance as predicated by a guidance hypothesis for KR. During acquisition when KR was present and being manipulated, all groups showed improvements in performance across practice, while increased summary lengths generally depressed performance. However, in a delayed no-KR retention test, there was an inverse relation between the summary length in acquisition and absolute constant error on the retention test. A guidance hypothesis is favored to explain how, relative to immediate KR, long KR summaries can provide detrimental effects in acquisition while enhancing retention performance

Relevant to this special series on movement science, a brief overview of research in the field of motor learning is provided. A distinction between learning and performance is emphasized with respect to experimental design and the evaluation of laboratory and clinical intervention techniques. Intrinsic and extrinsic feedback are defined. Basic principles of motor learning pertaining to the use of augmented feedback or knowledge of results (KR) are reviewed. Particular emphasis is placed on recent research regarding the effects of selected KR variations (KR relative frequency, bandwidth KR, and KR delay) on motor performance and learning in healthy young adults. Results are discussed in terms of short-lasting temporary performance effects and relatively long-lasting learning effects. Theoretical and practical implications from this research are discussed. It is suggested that it is appropriate to use the principles obtained through laboratory experimentation as guidelines rather than as exact recommendations when applying basic research findings to clinical practice.

Summary knowledge of results (KR) involves the presentation KR for each of a set of trials (e.g., 10) only after the last trial in the set has been completed. Earlier, Lavery (1962) showed that, relative to providing KR after each trial, a 20trial summary KR was detrimental to performance in a practice phase with KR present but was beneficial for a no-KR retention test. Using a relatively simple ballistic-timing task, we examined summary lengths of 1 (essentially KR after every trial), 5, 10, and 15 trials, searching for an inverted-U relationship between summary length and retention performance as predicated by a guidance hypothesis for KR. During acquisition when KR was present and being

manipulated, all groups showed improvements in performance across practice, while increased summary lengths generally depressed performance. However, in a delayed no-KR retention test, there was an inverse relation between the summary length in acquisition and absolute constant error on the retention test. A guidance hypothesis is favored to explain how, relative to immediate KR, long KR summaries can provide detrimental effects in acquisition while enhancing retention performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Nexwell, et. Al. Conducted a research in 1974 study of 140 junior high school boys to extend J. Adams' concept of closed-loop motor learning theory (see record 197222177001) to short, fast-timing movements that prevent the use of peripheral feedback to control movements. Was carried out. Therefore, the motion result was a function of the trigger mechanism (memory trace), and the recognition of the motion result after the reaction was completed was a function of the cognitive mechanism (perceptual trace). Knowledge of the results (KR) was withdrawn from the independent group at some point in the series of field trials. The results support the prediction of the closed-loop theory that the performance of the reference is maintained during the withdrawal of KR due to the development of a powerful response detection mechanism. KR is encouraged to provide information to reduce motion errors and create a good reference for assessing reaction-induced feedback. (PsycINFO database record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Macpherson et al (1948) , conducted a research on ‘The effect of knowledge of results on learning and performance II. Some characteristics of very simple skills’. It was found that when the subject saw or expected to see the direction and extent of his error he performed more accurately than during a comparable series when this knowledge was withheld. These effects varied considerably for the different tasks. The discrepancies are briefly discussed.

Methodology

Description :

This study is conducted to determine the effect of knowledge of results on individual performance. The test is supposed to determine whether the knowledge of results have a positive or negative effect ;on the the performance of the subject.. It is a A within subject design wherein the same participant is used for each of the two conditions.

Design :

A within subject design was used for this experiment. This required using the same participants for each of the two conditions: Control condition - wherein knowledge of result was not provided and Experimental condition wherein knowledge of result was provided. This allowed for the individual performance in both conditions to be compared. The subjects were instructed to draw a line measuring 10 cm without any feedback about their performance in control condition, and thereafter were instructed to draw a line measuring 10 cm while providing feedback about their performance on each trial in the experimental condition. The lengths of the lines drawn by the subject were noted, and their difference from 10 cm was calculated for each trial in both the conditions

Hypothesis :

The mean error in judgment will be less when knowledge of results is provided

Materials Required :

Paper, pencil, white sheets, foot rule. Demographic Details :

Name : XYZ

Sex: MALE

Age : 20

Education Qualification : GRADUATE

Administration :

The subject was made comfortable and rapport was formed . Following the rapport formation , doubts of the subject were acknowledged and cleared . Introspective and observational reports were recorded. Instructions were read out to the subject and the procedure was followed. The results were calculated and interpreted and were informed to the subject.

Instructions :

Control Condition : “In this activity, you are required to draw a line measuring 10 cm using the pencil and the ruler. You will be given several attempts to draw the line as accurately as possible.”

Experimental Condition: “In this activity, you are again required to draw a line measuring 10 cm using the pencil and the ruler. But after every attempt I will tell you the actual length of the line that you have drawn. You will be given several attempts to draw the line as accurately as possible.”

Procedure :

The subject was made to sit comfortably. The instructions were explained clearly to the participant and the queries were addressed .This experiment required the subject to draw 10 lines measuring 10 cm under controlled condition and the experimental condition. In under controlled condition , the subject was required to draw 10 lines measuring 10 cm using the pencil and the ruler. Under experimental conditions , the subject was required to draw a line measuring 10 cm using the pencil and the ruler. But after every attempt the subject was informed about the actual length of the line that she had drawn. During the process the measurement of each line was noted and the results were calculated.

Observational Report :

The subject was very excited and curious and somewhat anxious .The subject was also calm at the same time and was not in a hurry to complete the experiment. The participant listened carefully to all the instructions given and the experiment was carried out calmly

Introspective Report :

“I was very keen to know how this experiment works and what it will measure. I was anxious at first, but my tester made me feel pretty comfortable. I aimed to complete the task as soon as possible. It was very interesting.”

Precautions :

Before the conduction of the experiment, it was ensured that the room was well lit and ventilated. Also, it was made sure that the possible extraneous variables, like noise, temperature and other distractions, were kept at constant or controlled. It was ensured that the participant was comfortably seated and that subject was completely blindfolded.

Result obtained:

The aim of this experiment was to assess the effect of knowledge of results on individual performance. The design used here was within subject design. The treatment given denotes that whenever the knowledge of result is provided the level of performance of the subject increases. It was observed that there was difference between controlled condition and experimental conditions due to the feedback provided

Provided below are the results of the experiment :

Table 1 : Result table containing the length of the line drawn and the error in judgment under the controlled and experimental condition

TRIALS | CONTROL CONDITION | EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION ————————————————————————————— sno

Line length (in cm)

Error in judgment (in cm)

Line Length (in cm)

Error in judgment (in cm)

1

17

4

12

5

2

16

3

11

2

3

16

5

10

0

4

12

2

12

0

5

12

1

8

5

6

13

3

9

3

7

14

2

7

2

8

9

5

8

1

9

8

3

8

0

10

9

4

7

0

MEAN-32/10= 3.2 18/10= 1.8

The results explain that the knowledge of results has a positive impact on the performance of the individual. It is seen in the first condition where no feedback was provided to the subject the mean of error in judgment was 3.2 whereas in the second condition where the feedback was provided to the subject the mean of error in judgment was 1.8 . So it can be seen that the number of errors in the experimental condition was less than the number of errors in the controlled condition. (1.8...