Motor Learning - Memory Systems - Feedback - Knowledge of Results PDF

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Summary

Dr Brendan SueSee, Dr Helmut Geiblinger, Dr Sharyn Carnahan, Steven Roberts, Susan Wilson-Gahan, Melisa Chong...

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Motor Learning • Motor behaviour is the study of movement & process that underline motor performance Motor control  • Behavioural & neurophysiological processes that affect the control of movement  • How we produce movements & how the neuromuscular system functions  • How do we control motor skill? How do we coordinate body parts to perform a skill?        

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Motor learning • Learning of skilled movements through practice • Skill acquisition & improving well‐learnt skills or relearning skills following injury, disease or change in movement techniques • Practice & feedback design Motor development • Learning & control across lifespan • Processes underlying these changes, as well as the factors that influence them • Infant ‐> Childhood ‐> Adolescence ‐> Adulthood ‐>older adulthood Motor learning & skill acquisition in Exercise & Sport science Motor skills are an important variable that influences performance Basic skills ‐> Elite level skills Sport concepts Exercise concepts ‐> Rehabilitation Recognised discipline Sports Medicine Australia (SMA) & Exercise & Sports Science Australia (ESSA)

 SKILL – the learned ability to bring about certain pre-determined results with maximum certainty and a minimum outlay of time, energy or both  A SKILL – an organised coordinated activity in relation to an object or situation which requires a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms. Classifications of motor skills 1. Precision of Movement  Gross motor skill (whole body movement)  Intermediate motor skill (limbs)  Fine Motor skill (fingers, small, e.g. piano)

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2. Distinctiveness of beginning and end points Discrete motor skill (clear start and distinct end) Serial motor skill (series of discrete movements put into a sequence) Continuous motor skill (continuous movement only stopped by self or circumstances)

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3. Stability of environment Closed environment (self-paced, predictable) Open environment (externally paced, unpredictable) 4. Attentional Focus Required

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5. Closed-loop or open-loop motor skills  Motor skills are closed-loop or open-loop depending on whether students receive performance sensory feedback in time to adjust.  Closed-loop motor skills return students' sensory feedback in time to adjust. Baseball fielding is a closed-loop motor skill.  Open-loop motor skills do not return performance sensory feedback in time to adjust. Pitching is an open-loop motor skill.

Performance measurement  Measured in 3 categories: • TIME • completion time (eg. run 1500m; 50 sit-ups) • reaction time (how long for a goalkeeper to move once penalty kick taken)

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• ERROR - number of errors (eg. How many missed serves?) - amount of error (eg. How far off target?) - number of successful attempts (eg. How many pitches in strike zone?) • MAGNITUDE • height (high jump) • distance (javelin) • weight (weight lifting) • number of responses (How many rebounds?)

Stages of Learning a skill  Fitts and Posner's Three-Stage Model (1967)  Stage 1: Cognitive stage ◦ large number of performance errors ◦ errors usually big ones ◦ unaware they are making mistakes  (unconscious incompetence)  OR ◦ recognises there is a problem but unsure of what  it is or how to fix it (conscious incompetence) ◦ highly variable performance  Stage 2: Associative stage  not as many errors and are smaller  more concentration on refining the skill  able to identify some errors in own performance  (consciously competent)  variability in performance between one attempt and another decreases  Stage 3: Autonomous stage  skill has become almost automatic  most of the performance does not require much thought (unconsciously competent)  allows more focus on critical parts of the skill or factors which may affect optimal performance  able to detect errors and adapt performance accordingly Implications for instructors  During the associative stage, the instructor’s role is: ◦ to devise meaningful practice routines involving temporal patterning of the sub-routines eg. When to breathe in butterfly ◦ to provide appropriate feedback  a) receptor and perceptual mechanisms  demo’s used to smooth, refine and point out error in performance  b) auditory cues  listening to sound of ball leads to temporal patterning (eg. hear different sound when you hit “sweet spot”)  c) visual  videotapes good for correction purposes  - to develop their observation skills  - to study biomechanical principles and movement patterns

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- to learn the skill themselves  increase empathy and appreciate temporal qualities - to utilise an executive plan (overall picture of the skill) as a standard for performance to be measured against.

Memory Systems  “Working”/ “Short-term” memory(WM) ◦ short-term sensory storage ◦ short-term information storage ◦ short-term operational storage  Long-term Memory(LTM) ◦ 3 systems  Procedural - “How to do…”  Semantic - “What to do…” (facts, general knowledge)  Episodic - personal experiences at a particular time (sensory e.g. An odour triggers memory)  Processing of info in working memory: 1) used to accomplish goal at hand  2) prepares info for storage in long-term memory

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Transfer of Learning  Influence of a previously practiced skill on the learning of a new skill Types of transfer  Positive transfer--the previously learned skill facilitates the learning of a new skill eg. Gymnastics to aerial skiing  Negative transfer--the previously learned skill hinders the learning of a new skill eg. Tennis (elbow/shoulder) to squash (wrist)  Amount of transfer is generally small and positive (10 - 30 %)  Teaching for positive transfer is an important goal in most instructional settings

Forgetting  3 ways people forget things:  1. Trace Decay  time alone can cause a WM to be forgotten  inability to retrieve/gain access to stored info accounts for forgetting in LTM  2. Interference  a) Pro-Active Interference  related to forgetting kinaesthetic info  Skill learned before interferes with the learning of a new skill  occurs when similarity between what is  to be learned and the interference leads to  confusion  b) Retroactive Interference

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skill learned after a new skill interferes with the recall of the new skill  occurs if interference activity is attention-demanding of person  another motor activity (esp. if similar to the skill trying to be remembered) provides more interference than a verbal activity.  eg. Don’t show students all 3 methods of changing a relay baton at one time and then ask for them to “Show me the first method.” * Similarity leads to confusion 3. Inappropriate Retrieval Cues ◦ Information is there, just not able to bring it forward ◦ source of trigger to help find a specific piece of info in LTM not correct (eg. Trivial Pursuit syndrome - “I know this! I know this!…Aagh! I give up. What’s the answer?”) Implications for instructors…  practise movement ASAP after demonstration  don’t show alternatives until learners are confident with first method  continuous motor skills better remembered over a long period than discrete skills  discrete tasks have high cognitive/verbal component

Influences on remembering  Key Terms  * Coding - organization of stimulus input into an acceptable form for storage  * Encoding - transforming of info to be remembered into a form that can be stored in memory  SENSATION PERCEPTION DECISION-MAKING  electrical impulses memory nervous system (eg. recognition of words)  * Storage - process of placing info into LTM  * Rehearsal - process enabling transfer of info from working memory to LTM  * Retrieval - search through LTM for info needed for task at hand. Type of Movement/Movement Characteristics  Movement information has many aspects (both temporal and spatial  Location (stored in brain)  eg. initiated where?  Golf Swing finished where?  hit ball where?  - Distance (stored in proprioceptors)  eg. Squash serve how long is the movement?  get the feel of the movement?  - velocity, force, direction etc.

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Implications for instructors…  critical location points within own body space better coded than distance information  location points associated with well-known object aids recall eg. clock face  the more meaningful the movement, the easier it is to remember (the learner will learn when…)  self-generated movements (something you’ve made up) are better recalled e.g. own dance sequence Processing Information  It takes a 5 yr old 3 times as long as 17 yr. old to process 1 piece of info  Greatest improvements in processing speed and movement time occurs between 6-12 years old. Short-term memory...  Recall improves between 3-7 years (able to encode better) and continues to improve through to adulthood - mature by 13 years. Long-term memory…  Encoding & recording ability difficult before 8 yrs. ◦ (acceptable form for storage) Rehearsal…  Starts 5-6 years  Refined 10 years Grouping…  difficult before 10 years.

Influences on remembering  Rehearsal Strategies  a)Rote Repetition ◦ drill-like repetition of movement ◦ very practical and effective esp. for closed skill  b) Verbal Labels ◦ attaching useful verbal labels/cues to movement to assist recall (eg. “i” before “e” except after “c”)  c) Imagery ◦ developing picture in mind of what complete movement is like  d) Intention to Remember ◦ concentration is better from the start if learner aware, for example, that there’ll be a test at the end. Implications for instructors  Organisation  group and categorise information into component parts and chunks so the beginner thinks of complex movements as having many parts. As skill increases, the number of parts decreases in the learner’s mind.

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 when teaching... ◦ avoid breaking skills down into too many parts and keep related parts together ◦ the more your assessment context is similar to your practice context (and vice versa), the better the retention will be (“Play the way you practise and practise the way you want to play!”) closed skills - practice should resemble game conditions open skills - variety of practice contexts needed e.g. “drillified” ◦ re-emphasise middle section of skill e.g. “prime-time principle” Feedback Key Terms  Intrinsic - belongs to the task itself eg. Shooting a goal in/out of basket?  Extrinsic - coming from another person/source eg. Coach/video/teammates/spectators  Concurrent - feedback becomes available during performance eg. Coach calls instructions  Terminal - feedback comes after movement is finished eg. Ball goes into goal.  Immediate - feedback comes straight away movement is finished eg. Cricket - “He didn’t even move!”  Delayed - period of time between movement’s completion and feedback eg. Skaters waiting for judges’ marks.  KR (Knowledge of Results)  student knows outcome of response  was goal achieved?  KP (Knowledge of Performance)  characteristics of response to movement  eg. Lifted head too soon etc.   Total Knowledge of Results (KR)  = kr + KP  (performance (movement knowledge)  outcome) •

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Knowledge of Results has 3 roles: • error correction information • motivation • reinforcement KR: • is a learning variable a teacher can directly manipulate • can lead to more efficient error correction by the learner

2 types of KR qualitative quantitative

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Implications for instructors…  Early theorising about KR explored rewards and punishment. However, research has shown that error information is more important than rewards or punishment. Of course, learning that you made an error, may be interpreted as punishment by many people.  "The data from KR research suggest that subjects tend to change their behaviour when they are provided error information. When this information is not presented, they tend to repeat their original behaviour…When large errors result, subjects tend to make larger changes in their behaviour than when smaller errors are observed."  [Shea, C, Shebilske, W and Worchel, S (1993) Motor Learning and Control p.210] While KR improves motor learning, too much KR may have a detrimental effect on retention.  dependence on KR, using it to guide performance.  may ignore other sources of information. • Ideal is to do some trials with KR and some without. eg. One study compared 100% KR (results presented for every trial) with 33% KR (results shown only for every third trial). The 100% KR group performed better during the trials, but two days later the 33% KR group performed better, indicating better retention of the motor skill. (Shea, 1993, p.214)

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Bandwidth of KR schedule - large errors are displayed, but small errors are not displayed. Prevents a tendency for overcorrection of small, inconsequential errors, leading to larger errors on the next trial. These are called maladaptive short-term corrections. In most sports, KR is immediate -- you see if you threw the ball in the basket. In some sports, such as diving, KR is delayed a minute or so while the judges make decisions. This KR delay interval degrades learning, although how much is not firmly-established...