Language in Context (ch10) PDF

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120A Textbook Notes Language in Context—Chapter 10 Intro   

One reason we can understand non-literal uses of language is we interpret words we hear in a broader linguistic, cultural, social, and cognitive context Cognitive context (thought) of language00how language and thought interact Addresses how language is used in everyday contexts to communicate with others and to make our communications as meaningful as possible

Language and Thought 

Differences among Languages o Does language shape thought?  Variations in language due to physical and cultural env. (diff languages comprise diff lexicons)  Does the Garo tribe think about rice differently than we do bcz they have so many words for it?  Diff syntactical structures  The order of subject, verb, and object in a declarative sentence o The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis  Linguistic relativity—assertion that speakers of diff languages have differing cognitive systems which influence how people think  When thinking about rice, the Garo would view it differently (maybe w/ more complexity)language shapes thought  Sapir—we see and hear what we do bcz language predisposes certain choices of interpretation  Whorf—the world is full of stuff that we can only think about by linguistic systems in our minds  Problems:  The Eskimo do NOT have 20 words for snow  A milder interpretation—language may not determine thought, but language may influence thought  Since we have limited means to manipulate non-linguistic images, language facilitates mental representation and manipulation o Images are recalled and redrawn differently depending on the verbal label given to the picture o Ex. “beaded necklace” or “beaded curtain”. Label affects how you think about the item  Language affects how we encode, store, and retrieve info in memory  Ex. the car crashed, bumped, hit, smashed o When the word smashed was used, recalled the car as going much faster than when other words were used

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o The change in thinking was the result of the word choice  Given time to reflect on their answers, ppl more likely to respond in accord with what they said or wrote than what they saw Linguistic Relativity or Linguistic Universals?  Linguistic universals—characteristic patterns across all languages of various cultures  Colors—bcz people in every culture are exposed to the same range of colors  All languages take their basic color terms from a set of 11 color names o English uses all 11 while the Dani tribe uses only 2  When only some names are used, color naming fall into hierarchy of 5 levels (1)black, white 2) red 3)yellow, green, blue 4) brown 5)purple, pink, orange, gray)  There are some universals in color perception  BUT color categories can differ depending on speaker’s language o New Guinea combine blue and green into 1 color

o Russian discriminate between light and dark blue  Overall, it seems color naming is universal in that it clusters worldwide around the same areas, but color categories vary and color names can have impact on perception and cognition  Verbs and Grammatical Gender  Syntactical differences across language may affect thought o Ex. “to be” in Spanish has 2 diff words used in diff contexts (describe location of objects versus locations of events) (permanent vs temporary conditions) o Do native Spanish thinkers have a diff sense of temp and permanent than native English speakers? Unknown  Concepts  Having the stereotype (from a def of word in one language) assessable facilitates in mental manipulation Bilingualism and Dialects o Does a person think differently in each language? o Bilingualism—An Advantage or Disadvantage?  Does it make thinking in any one language more difficult, or does it enhance thought processes?  Bilinguals—enhanced executive functions, smaller vocab, access to lexical items in memory is slower  Depends if additive or subtractive bilingualism  Ppl need high competence in both languages for positive effect  Low SES leads to subtractive bilingualism (more than middle class)  Simultaneous or sequential o Factors that Influence Second Language Acquisition

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Age—to reach mastery of second language after adolescence  Pronunciation harder to learn later in life  Diff learners requires diff kinds of language experiences to gain proficiency o Bilingualism: One System or Two?  Single-system hypothesis—2 languages are represented in just one system or brain region (with brain damage to one area, ALL language is impaired)  Dual system—2 languages represented in separate systems of the mind (w brain damage to one area, the other language is still fine)  Summarize  2 languages share some, but not all, aspects of mental rep  Learning 2nd language is a plus but most useful if person learning the 2nd language is in an env. where the 2nd adds to the learning of the first o Language Mixtures and Change  Pidgins and creoles support the universality notion that linguistic ability to so natural and universal that humans invent new languages rapidly w/ opportunity  Dialect—a regional variety of a language distinguished by features such as vocab, syntax, and pronunciation  Ex. the word for “soft drink”—soda, coke, or pop  Dialectical differences often represent harmless regional variations o Neuroscience and Bilingualism  Learning 2nd language increases gray matter in left inferior parietal cortex (density is positively correlated with proficiency) Slips of the Tongue o Slips of the tongue—inadvertent linguistic errors in what we say  Speech errors that occur at any level of linguistic analysis  What we think and mean to say does not correspond to what we actually say o Often, errors result from intrusions by other thoughts or stimuli in env May indicate that language of thought differs from language through which we express our thoughts o People make slips in their conversations in:  Anticipation—used before appropriate bcz corresponds to element needed later  Perseveration—use of element that was appropriate earlier in sentence  Substitution—substitutes one element for another  Spoonerisms—knee of an idol INSTEAD of eye of a needle o Patterns of errors at each hierarchical level tend to be parallel Metaphorical Language o Figurative use of language (poets, non-literal people) o

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Metaphors—juxtapose two nouns in a way that positively asserts their similarities (house was a pigsty)  Tenor (topic of metaphor) and vehicle (what tenor is described in terms of) Similes—introduce words like or as into comparison between items (quiet as a mouse)

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Theories how metaphors work  Comparison view—traditional view—importance of comparative similarities and analogical r’ship  Anomaly view—emphasizes dissimilarity between tenor and vehicle  Domain-interaction view—integrates aspects of both previous views

Language in a Social Context 

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Pragmatics—the study of how people use language o Ppl change language in response to contextual cues without much thought o Gestures and vocal inflections are forms of nonverbal comm.  Personal space—distance between ppl in a convo that is considered comfortable for members of a given culture  Proxemics—study of interpersonal distance Speech Acts o Direct Speech Acts  Speech acts address the question of what you can accomplish with speech  There are 5 categories, based on the purpose of the acts  Representative—person conveys belief that a given proposition is true o Statement of belief  Directive—attempt to get listener to do something  Commissive—commitment by speaker to engage in future course of action (promises, pledges, assurances)  Expressive—statement regarding speaker’s psychological state  Declaration—the act of making a statement brings about an intended new state of affairs o Indirect Speech Acts  We accomplish our goals in speaking in an oblique fashion  Indirect requests—make request without doing so straightforwardly  Four basic ways  Asking or making statement about abilities  Stating a desire  Stating a future action  Citing reasons  Pinker’s Theory of Indirect Speech (based on assumption that comm. Is mixture of cooperation and conflict)  Plausible deniability—tell police officer “maybe I can take care of this right here” implying bride but not stating it  Relationship negotiation—use indirect language bcz nature of r’ship is ambiguous  Language as a digital medium of indirect as well as direct communication

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Characteristics of Successful Conversations o Cooperative principle—we seek to communicate in ways that make it easy for our listener to understand what we mean  Conversational postulates  Maxim of quantity—make your contribution to a convo as informative as required but no more info than is appropriate  Maxim of quality—be truthful; you are expected to say what you believe to be the case  Maxim of relation—make contribution relevant to the aims of the convo  Manner—avoid obscure expressions, vague utterance, and purposeful obfuscation of your point Gender and Language o Young girls are more likely to ask for help than young boys o Males prefer to talk political views, sources of personal pride, and what they like about the other person o Females prefer feelings toward parents, close friends, classes, and their fears  Women disclose more about themselves than men do o Tannen suggested diff goals of conversation between men and women  Men see as hierarchical social order. Women seek to establish connection o Social interactions influence the ways in which language is used and comprehended in discourse and reading

Do Animals Have Language? 

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Why study animals o Animals are presumed to have simpler cognitive systems, so easier to model their behavior o Animals can be subject to procedures that would not be possible for human ones  Ex. kill animal at end of experiment, inject with drug to see effects o Animals not in the wild can be fill-time subjects, regularly available subjects o For a more complete understanding of comparative and evolutionary developmental bases of human behavior Communication is different from language o Language—organized means of combining words to communicate o Communication—encompasses exchange of thoughts and feelings through language in addition to nonverbal expression (gestures, glances, contextual cues) Chimpanzees, Koko Study found when chimps use tools, the brain regions that were especially active corresponded to Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in humans (language comprehension and production)

Neuropsychology of Language 

Brain Structures Involved in Language

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The Brain and Word Recognition  The middle part of the superior temporal sulcus responds more strongly to speech sounds than non-speech sounds  It does not matter whether words or pseudo-words are presented The Brain and Semantic Processing  Storage and retrieval or meaning—ventral temporal lobes, angular gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, dorsal prefrontal cortex, and posterior cingulated gyrus The Brain and Syntax The Brain and Language Acquisition  Left hemisphere better at processing well-practiced routines. Right better at dealing with novel stimuli The Placisticity of the Brain The Brain and Sex Differences in Language Processing  There is difference when performing rhyming tasks The Brain and Sign Language  The brain processes both signing and speech similarly in terms of their linguistic function

Aphasia o Aphasia—impairment of language functioning caused by damage to the brain o Wernicke’s Aphasia  Impairment in understand of spoken words and sentences  Involves production of sentences that have the basic structure but make no sense (sentences are empty of meaning) o Broca’s Aphasia  Production of agrammatical speech as the same time that verbal comprehension is preserved  The gist of the sentence is maintained, but expression is badly distorted  Important for speech production o Global Aphasia  Combo of impaired comprehension and production of speech o Anomic Aphasia  Difficulties in naming objects or retrieving words Autism o Developmental disorder with abnormalities in social behavior, language, and cognition o 5:1 males to females. Biological in origin (genetic) o Identified around d age 14 months when fail to show expected normal patterns of interactions with others  Kids display repetitive movements and stereotyped patterns of interests and activities  Fail to develop functional speech. They repeat words (echolalia) and have problems with semantic encoding of language

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