Lecture and Class Notes - Midterm 2 PDF

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PSYCH 101 B: Lecture and Book Notes (Midterm 2) 5.1 – THE MYSTERIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Consciousness – our moment to moment awareness of ourselves and our environment, subjective experience  Subjective/private   

Dynamic (ever-changing) Self-reflective and central to our sense of self Intimately linked to selective attention (choosing what to pay attention to)

Phenomenology – how things seem to a conscious person Problem of other minds – fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of others, no clear way to distinguish between a conscious and non-conscious person (only we know if we are conscious or not) Measuring states of consciousness  Self-report measures (just asking)  

Behavioral measures (recording a person’s performance at specific times) – running times, exam scores, eye tracking, etc. Physiological measures (correspondence between bodily processes and mental state) – blood pressure, brain activity, etc.

No way to tell if experiences are the same (is your red my red?) Two dimensions of mind perception: experience (ability to feel pain, pleasure, hunger, etc.) and agency (self-control, memory, thought, etc.) To disregard consciousness would be behaviorism Mind-body problem – the issue of how the mind is related Rene Descartes – proposed that the body is a machine and that the mind is a separate entity made of “thinking substance” controlled by the pineal gland (in reality, the pineal gland produces melatonin which influences sleep and sexual development, and connects endocrine system with the nervous system) Studies suggest that brain activity precedes activities of conscious mind (brain activity happens before voluntary action and self-report of wanting to move, brain starts thinking before doing) 5.2 – THE NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS Four (4) basic properties 1. Intentionality – quality of being directed towards an object: consciousness is always “about” something, can focus on one thing at a time 2. Unity – ability to integrate information from all the body’s senses into a coherent whole 3. Selectivity – capacity to include some objects but not others (deciding what information to experience) a. Dichotic listening – when people wearing headphones hear different things in each ear (can focus on things said in one ear or another) b. Cocktail party phenomenon – people tune in one message even while filtering out others nearby 4. Transience – tendency to change, the mind wanders (consciousness is a “stream” – William James) Levels of consciousness

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Minimal consciousness – low level sensory awareness and responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behavior without realizing it (poking someone when they’re asleep) Full consciousness – know and is able to report mental state Self-consciousness – when person’s attention is drawn to self as an object, tends to evaluate self and notice shortcomings o Most animals don’t have a reaction when shown a mirror, chimps and orangutans do

Experience sampling technique – people agree to report conscious experiences at random times, shows that consciousness is dominated by the immediate environment, secondary is person’s current concerns Default network – when people aren’t busy, the brain is still active Mental control – attempt to change conscious states of mind Thought suppression – conscious avoidance of a thought: studies show that this doesn’t work and instead prompts a flurry of returns of the unwanted though Rebound effect of thought suppression – tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency Ironic processes of mental control – ironic errors occur because the mental process that monitors errors can itself produce them (when attempting not to think about something, a part of the mind is searching for that thing) 5.3 – THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND Freudian Perspective  Conscious – thoughts and perceptions we are aware of  

Preconscious – mental events outside of our current awareness but are easily recalled Unconscious – events that cannot be brought to conscious under normal circumstances

Dynamic unconscious – active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, person’s deepest instincts and desires, and person’s inner struggle to control these forces  Held in check by repression – a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts/memories from consciousness and keeps them in the unconscious Freudian slips – speech errors/lapses of consciousness that point to the existence of an unconscious (Clinton mixing up “president” and “prisoner”) Modern Perspective – unconscious mind is a rapid, automatic information processor that influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors Cognitive unconscious – all mental processes that give rise to a person’s thoughts, choices, emotions, and behavior, even if not experienced by the person Dual process theories – two systems for processing information  Controlled (conscious) processing – conscious use of attention and effort (driving a car) 

Automatic (unconscious) processing – can be performed without conscious awareness of effort (tying a shoe)

Subliminal perception – when thought or behavior is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving (showing groups words associated with old, reflecting that by leaving study more slowly than normal)

The unconscious is fast, but not too bright but in some cases, makes better decisions than the conscious (choosing an objectively better roommate) “going with your gut” 5.4 – SLEEP AND DR EA MING Altered state of consciousness – form of experience that departs significantly from normal subjective experience of the world and the mind Hypnogogic state – pre-sleep consciousness, wandering thoughts and images similar to dreams Hypnic jerk – sudden quiver/sensation of dropping Hypnopompic state – post-sleep consciousness Circadian rhythm – cyclical internal changes that occur on a 24-hour basis in many biological processes, if there were no clocks we would have a 25.1-hour cycle  Darkness increases melatonin, light decreases melatonin 

Environmental cues help keep a 24-hour schedule

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Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) – linked to the pineal gland which controls the production of melatonin and influences whether one is an early bird or a night owl

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Disruptions: jet lag, night work shifts, Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – type of depression experienced during the fall and winter that is linked with the amount of light exposure

Beta waves – waves that are present when awake/alert Alpha waves – waves present when relaxed/drowsy Sleep stages  Stage 1: light sleep, can be easily awakened   

Stage 2: deeper sleep, have “sleep spindles” – bursts of activity Stage 3 & 4: deep sleep, have delta waves Stage 5/REM (rapid eye movement) sleep: brain wave activity like Stage 1, brain is highly active, “paradoxical sleep,” brain is highly aroused, but the body is paralyzed because the motor cortex signals are blocked o Gets longer after multiple cycles, deep sleep decreases o Pulse quickens, blood pressure rises, increased sexual arousal o Vivid dreams that occur in real time o Important in development in infancy, significantly decreases by 3-5 years old

Electrooculograph (EOG) – instrument that measures eye movmenets As one gets older, their sleep becomes more shallow (need less sleep) Sleep process  First hour: goes all the way to stage 4    

Goes back up to REM Alternates between deep sleep and REM sleep every 90 minutes REM periods get longer and lighter sleep stages Stage 3/4 disappears halfway through an 8-hour sleep cycle

Restoration model – sleep recharges our bodies to recover from physical and mental fatigue Evolutionary/circadian sleep models – sleep increases our chances of survival

REM-rebound effect – tendency to increase the amount of REM sleep after being deprived of it Memory consolidation – process by which the brain transfers information into long-term memory (may be enhanced by REM) REM sleep deprivation causes memory problems and aggression, deprivation leads to more REM sleep rebound Stage 3/4 sleep deprivation leads to being tired, fatigued, and sensitive to pain Conclusion: sleep must be important, otherwise it would have evolved out by now SLEEP DISORDERS Insomnia – chronic difficulty in falling asleep, staying, or experiencing restful sleep  Restless leg syndrome – urge to move leg or other body parts while attempting to sleep    

Caused by night work shifts, depression, anxiety, linked to worrying Desire to sleep can cause ironic mental control, meaning higher sensitivity to sleeplessness Solution: give up trying to sleep and do something else Sleeping pills can help with short term events (emotional events), but should not be used in the long-term because they’re addictive and you get less REM sleep

Narcolepsy – extreme daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks  Cataplexy – a sudden loss of muscle tone often triggered by excitement and other motions  

Genetic disposition, no cure but can be managed thorough medication Sleep paralysis – sometimes wakes up without being able to move

REM-Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) – the loss of muscle tone that causes normal REM-sleep paralysis is absent, leading to the acting out of dreams. Linked with Parkinson’s Somnambulism (sleepwalking) – when a person arises and walks around while asleep  More common in children   

Early in the night, when in deep sleep, therefore difficult to arouse Eyes are usually open and is not linked with any additional problems No memory of the event later

Somniloquy (sleep talking) – 50% of children have it, 5% of adults, linked to genetics Night terrors – frightening dreams that arouse the sleeper to a near-panic  Happens in Stage 3/4 sleep  

More intense than nightmares Usually does not remember event later

Sleep apnea – repeatedly stopping and restarting breathing during sleep  Commonly mistaken for snoring   

Blockage of the airway when lying down Typically occurs in middle-aged, overweight men Can lead to an irregular heartbeat or stroke

DREAMS Dream consciousness vs. waking consciousness 1. Intense emotion

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Illogical – no time, place, person continuity Full formed sensation, visual I predominant Uncritical acceptance – everything that’s happening is normal Difficulty remembering after waking up

Can occur in any sleep stage, but is most common in REM We often dream about negative content, not as strange as the stereotype of dreams Cultural background, life experiences, and current concerns can shape our dream content Gender differences: women dream about men and women equally, while 2/3 of men’s dreams the characters are male Nightmares are more common in children Dreams are “interleaved fragments of experience” take snapshots from the day Freudian Perspective – dynamic unconscious purposely making dreams confusing  Wish fulfillment – gratification of our unconscious desires and needs, includes sexual and aggressive urges that are too unacceptable to be consciously acknowledged     

Manifest content – dream’s apparent topic/superficial meaning Latent content – dream’s true, underlying meaning (a burning tree at a neighbor’s house could mean you want them dead) Dream work – process by which a dream’s latent content is transformed into manifest content Problems with this perspective – infinite number of interpretations, all guesswork Evidence that dreams also feature suppressed thoughts

Activation synthesis model – dreams are produced when the forebrain tries to make sense of random neural activity. Originates in the pons and the cerebral cortex interprets. Counter arguments would be that people have recurring dreams. Freud: dreams begin with meaning vs. activation synthesis: dreams begin randomly, meaning is added as the mind interprets Problem-solving dream models – dreams can help us find creative solutions to our problems Cognitive-process dream theories – focuses on the process of how we dream, similarity between dreaming and waking states Daydreaming – state when seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts come to mind (shown via fMRI), provides stimulations during periods of boredom. Greater visuals than nighttime and less emotional/bizzare Brain activity while dreaming  Amygdala is involved with responses to threat/stress, active during REM   

Visual > audio > touch > smell/taste Prefrontal cortex is deactivated, perhaps leading to dreams that don’ have sensible storylines Motor cortex is activated, but spinal neurons inhibit its expression

5.5 – DRUGS AND CONSCIOUSNESS Psychoactive drugs – chemicals that influence consciousness or behavior by altering brain’s chemical messaging system, can either be an agonist or antagonist and prompt normal or abnormal brain operations Humans have a strange attraction to abnormal states of consciousness

Tolerance – decreasing responsiveness to a drug over time because the body wants to retain homeostasis Compensatory responses – reactions opposite to that of a drug which increases tolerance, can happen without drug, expectation of change Withdrawal – occurrence of compensatory responses after discontinued drug use Substance dependence – substance use that causes a person significant distress or substantially impairs that person’s life   

Physical dependence – pain/hallucinations that happen after drug withdrawal (caffeine headache) Psychological dependence – desire to return even after physical dependence, and emotional need (smoke after dinner) Factors that influence dependence: o Biological factors o Psychological factors (expectation of drug effect) o Environmental

Humans have a “play first, pay later” mentality, inability to view long-term consequences Addiction is not as bad as the media portrays it No clinical definition of “addiction,” instead of saying all drug use is bad, weight cost/benefit and expand/inform with knowledge TYPES OF DRUGS Depressants – substances that reduces activity in the CNS, have a sedative/calming effect that can arrest breathing in high doses  Alcohol o o o o o

Socially accepted substance Initial effects: euphoria and reduced anxiety Later: slower reactions, slurred speech, and poor judgment Increases GABA (inhibitor) and decreases glutamate Boosts neurotransmitters like dopamine (rewarding)

Expectancy theory – alcohol effects can be produced by expectations of how alcohol will influence them o Alcohol myopia theory – inability to pay attention to as much information as when sober, simples responses to complex situations Barbiturates – sleep, anesthesia Benzodiazepines – Xanax, anxiety drugs Toxic inhalants – glue, hairspray, nail polish remover, etc. that results in brief drunkenness and can cause permanent brain damage o

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Stimulants – substances that excite the CNS, heighten arousal/activity  Caffeine  

Amphetamines (speed), bath salts o Widely abused, causes insomnia, aggression, and paranoia Ecstasy (MDMA, X, E) o Stimulant with hallucinogenic effects o Increased empathy, feel close to those around you o “party drug” popular at raves o Not likely to form dependence o

Side effects: jaw clenching, irregular body temperature

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Cocaine o Leaves from coca plant from Andes o Usually snorted or smoked (crack) o Exhilaration and euphoria o Highly addictive Nicotine o Not much to offer (no significantly pleasurable effects) o Use is motivated by the unpleasantness of quitting rather than the pleasantness of using o Best way to cure is to never start

Narcotics (opiates) – highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieves  Induces well-being/relaxation   

Produces tolerance and dependence Often via syringes (danger of HIV) Mimics brain’s own relaxation/well-being system (endorphins, “runner’s high”)

Hallucinogens – alter sensation/perception, often cause visual/auditory hallucinations  LSD (acid), mescaline, psilocybin, PCP, ketamine   

Some derived from plants or shrooms (peyote cactus), others like LSD are synthetic Perception changes, intense sensations Not usually addictive or have tolerance/dependence problems

Marijuana (cannabis) – plant whose leaves and buds contain psychoactive drugs called tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)  Mildly hallucinogenic    

Euphoric, increases sight and sound and rush of ideas Affects judgment and STM 15x stronger now than in the 60s Gateway drug – increases risk of subsequent use of other, more harmful drugs

5.6 – HYPNOSIS: OPEN TO SUGGESTION Hypnosis – social interaction in which one person’s (hypnotist) suggestions leads to change in a person’s subjective experience of the world, leads people to expect certain things will happen outside of conscious will Induction: focus on something and make suggestions, not everyone is equally hypnotizable Susceptibility is best determined by one’s own judgment Post-hypnotic amnesia – failure to retrieve memories following suggestions to forget Hypnotic analgesia – reduction of pain via hypnosis for people susceptible to hypnosis, may be more effective than morphine 6.1 – WHAT IS MEMORY? Memory – information that is retained longer than the stimulus that created it, the ability to store and retrieve information over time Atkinson & Shiffrin – “boxes in head” model of memory

Sensory input -> sensory memory (maintenance rehearsal and attention, otherwise lost) -> short-term memory (if unrehearsed, lost, also used for retrieval) -> long-term memory (encoding, some information is lost over time) Hippocampus – acts to consolidate STM to LTM Amygdala – attaches emotion to memories 6.2 – ENCODING: TRANSFORM ING PERCEPTIONS INTO MEMORIES Encoding – entry into long-term memory Semantic encoding – process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored  Semantic judgment – thinking about the meaning of words, much better for meaning and long-term retention  

Rhyme judgement – thinking about the sound of the words Case judgments - thinking about the appearance of the words (upper/lower case)

Maintenance/rote rehearsal – repetition, not optimal but keeps information in working memory Elaborative rehearsal – focus on meaning of information or expanding on it in same way (using imagery, self, chunking, organization, etc.)  Levels of processing: visual (10%), acoustic (50%), semantic (90%) 

Mnemonics – a technique for organizing information so it can be more easily recalled

Schema – cognitive structure that provides a meaningful framework for organizing information, aids in encoding information by using what we know and adding new information (storing the gist) Visual imagery encoding – process of storing information by converting it into mental images (visualizing chairs around a table to name people that were there) Organizational encoding – process of categorizing information according to relationships among a series of items (servers categorizing orders to remember), activates left frontal lobe surface Survival-related information recording: by natural selection, memory mechanisms that help us survive and reproduce are preserved Survival encoding forces both detailed thinking and extensive planning 6.3 – STORAGE: MAINTAING MEM ORIES OVER TIM E Storage – creation of an associated network via clustering or hierarchies Semantic networks – consists of nodes (concepts) joined by pathways that link related concepts, spread of activation, thinking about one-word triggers other associations Sensory memory – briefly holds incoming sensory information, few seconds or less (flashing letters across a screen) Iconic memory – fast decaying store of visual information (1 sec or less) Echoic memory – f...