Lecture Notes, Lecture 1 - History Of Psychology, Lecture 1 In Psyc104 PDF

Preview

Summary

History of Psychology   History is necessary to constructively critique and evaluate theories and their  methods of investigation in the present day.   ALL Knowledge arises in a ...

Description

 



     

     

   

   



History of Psychology History is necessary to constructively critique and evaluate theories and their methods of investigation in the present day. ALL Knowledge arises in a Social Context (ZEITGEIST). For an informed and sophisticated understanding of Psychology you need to know the ideas and events that have influenced its development. Psychology is the study of the PSYCHE (Ancient Greek for soul). The idea of the soul is very old. The term “psyche” could mean either soul or mind. Greek Origins of Western Thought Pythagoras (580 -500 BCE) Numbers will explain the Universe. First to connect physical events (tones) to psychological events (pleasure) Perfection is only to be found in the mathematical world. This world can only be embraced by REASON not the senses. First with a clear cut mind-body dualism in Western thought. NB Sense/Flesh experiences are inferior. Plato was a member of the Pythagoreans. Plato (427- 347 BCE) A pupil of Socrates. Combined Socratic method with Pythagorean mysticism. Theory of Forms: Objects in the material world are inferior representations of objects in the world of pure forms (ideas). True knowledge is attained by grasping the forms themselves. This is achieved by ignoring sensory experience. Mathematics is a higher form of knowing but not the ultimate (The Cave). Knowledge is brought into the body with the Soul and so introspection is the way to attain truth. Aristotle (384- 322 BCE) A pupil of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. Founded the “Lyceum”, regarded as the first University. He was the first to examine such topics as; memory, sensation, sleep, dreams, geriatrics and learning. Essences could only become known by studying nature. Senses bring in information. This is done by studying many examples of types of events or objects. He was a Rationalist Empiricist ie the mind must analyse information from the senses to produce knowledge. He sought to explain psychological events in terms of biology -> the first physiological psychologist. He emphasised purpose ie teleology. He postulated several laws of Association with respect to memory. Associationism is the basis of modern theories of Learning. Significance of the Ancient Greeks for Western Psychology An axial period (Jaspers) in western thought around 600BCE -> momentous change, no longer accept but question!!

   

      

     

 

 

 

Establishment of rigor in analytical thinking. Critical evaluation of arguments. Knowledge is in a continual process of development and change. Open discussion and debate valued and encouraged -> Very much a western tradition. The Dark Ages in the West (400s-1300s CE) Greek learning largely lost to the West. The Academy in Athens was closed in 500s CE. The Roman world of Law and Order was fragmenting. Domination by mysticism, superstition and anti-intellectualism. The preservation of Greek learning was carried out by Islamic scholarship. Russell states that Muslim scholars “preserved the apparatus of civilization” (1946,p420). During the West’s dark age Islamic Scholarship flourished.

Significance of the Dark to Middle Ages for Western Psychology This period effectively put a stop to open inquiry concerning the nature of human beings. The role of human reason was down played in favour of adherence to faith as espoused by the Church. Toward the end of the period the rediscovery of Aristotle’s work lead to a reawakening of discussion and inquiry. Many world class universities were established in the 1200 and 1300s CE. This is evidence of the emerging importance of scholarship. The germ of Humanism was sown. Humans as the measure of all things would be dominant during the middle of the second millennium. This period of history showed that knowledge was not simply the product of intricate contemplation and debate but required “an expanding engagement with the world” (Mahoney, 1991,p 42) Renaissance Humanism (1400s-1600s CE- common era) This was the period when social and intellectual focus turned onto human beings and human activities. Four themes are prominent; i] Individualism ii] Personal religion iii] Interest in the past, Greek and Roman writers.\ iv] Anti-Aristolelianism (against Aristotle) Dogma (church teachings) was no longer unchallenged. The rise of a multitude of ‘princely kingdoms’ contributed to rejection of centralized control. (ideas that aren't from the central body are worth debating) Corruption in the church was apparent and affronted many eg Martin Luther. The rise of Skepticism (eg Petrarch, Montaigne) meant that intellectualised Aristotelian religion of the day was challenged. (positive scepticism in order to improve thinking)





The world was conceptually shrinking. Great voyages of discovery (Marco Polo, Columbus, Magellan) lead to the realisation that all was not centred on western Europe. A time characterized by ferment and upheaval. Those in authority responded repressively. Principles of Newtonian Science - model of rigour 1. God created but does not micromanage. (prior to this it is thought God controlled everything) 2. The material world is governed by natural laws. 3. He rejected Aristotle’s final cause concept. (Newtown said it is intermediate causes, events follow other events) 4. Accepted Occam's Razor (theory or model should be as complicated as necessary to explain the phonemon but no more complicated) 5. Knowledge is imperfect because of limitations of human beings. (knowledge is tentative6. Classification (naming) is not explanation! Francis Bacon (1561-1626 CE) -played an important role in empiricism • Stressed the observation of events • Desired no theories but only induction. A true scientist must come to their task without preconceptions. • Bacon recognized only empirical observation as the ultimate authority in matters scientific. • Scientific endeavours should benefit society. Practical knowledge was the rationale for expending public funds on science. • Bacon died from a chill while stuffing a chicken with snow.







  

Significance of the Period of the Beginnings of Modern Science for Western Psychology The challenge to dogma and in particular Aristotle was the beginning of a return to active engagement with the world as the focus of speculation and open inquiry, and ultimately onto human beings and their make up. (Don’t speculate but open to inquiry) Public funds for public good (Bacon). Rationalism Descartes (1596-1650 CE) Invented analytic geometry from observing flies in a room!! He wanted to be able to locate them exactly in 3 dimensions. Here he was in line with Copernicus, Galileo and Newton. He wanted to establish human knowledge on the same certain basis as the truths of mathematics. His search for truth went through a terrible period of doubt. Essentially he wanted to be able to identify the sure foundation of knowing! From this foundation all other knowledge could be deduced. His method consisted of four rules; i ) Avoid all pre-judgement, all is up for examination,

ii ) Divide problems into as many parts as might be required to obtain a solution (Reductionism) Iii) Analyse the parts in an orderly fashion. Start with the simplest and work toward the most difficult, Iv) Be extremely thorough so as to leave no aspect unexamined. 

  





         



The only thing Descartes ended up being certain of was that he was doubting! It was as a result of this process that he came to his famous conclusion “Cogito ergo sum” = ‘I think, therefore I am’. However he also became convinced that certain ideas were so clear that they must be INNATE! Placed there by God. Descartes was clearly a RATIONALIST ie he emphasised the dominance of logical thought processes in the quest for knowledge. He also asserted that humans and animals possessed similar methods of responding to the environment. This opened up the way for using animals for studying human bodily [and psychological] functioning. INTERACTIVE DUALISM. The ancient Mind Body problem was brought into focus in Descartes approach. Clearly the body was necessary for existence which is necessary for thinking. Yet the Mind did not work according to the same physical principles. The two interacted -> How is the key question Descartes made subjectivity respectable. In this he paved the way for the scientific study of consciousness. Empiricism Locke (1632- 1704 CE) Locke’s early work was in Chemistry under Robert Boyle. He met and corresponded with Newton for much of his life, especially on religious matters. Locke was a dualist but was not interested in how the two influence each other, they just do!! Locke opposed innate ideas. For him all knowledge came from “experience”! This included both external observations and internal operations of our minds. Ideas were simple mental images. They are produced by either sensation or reflection. The operations of the mind are innate. Its task is the arranging of images/ideas it does not create nor destroy them. He maintained that humans are motivated by the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. For Locke some of our psychological experiences reflect the physical world as it actually is! The mind was a blank slate or “tabula rasa”. This was in opposition to Descartes and emphasised the role of experience in creating knowledge. The mind did not come with all it needed. Experience was the missing ingredient. Hume (1711- 1776 CE) The science of man must be laid upon the foundation experience and observation.

    

 1. 2. 3. 4.    

  



He wanted to do for ‘moral philosophy’ (Social sciences) what Newton had done for physical sciences. Hume believed that the first step was careful observation and then generalize from those observations. Knowledge begins from simple impressions by which he meant strong vivid perceptions. One can never know reality directly only the received perceptions. Hume asserted that a causal relationship is nothing more than a consistent cooccurrence of two events. Thus causation is primarily a psychological experience not necessarily a reality. Hume had four conditions for two events to be in a causal relationship; Contiguous in space and time Cause -> Effect Constant union cause and effect Same cause for same effect. The mind consists of the perceptions we are having at any given moment. That is what we call mind is a collection of different perceptions. The emotions are the consistent motivators of human action. Humans learn the same as animals through reward and punishment. Hume reduced topics such as philosophy, religion and science to psychology ie perception. Kant (1724- 1804 CE) Kant brought to the divide between the Empiricists and early rationalists a synthesis of ideas. Kant asserted that the categories (such as causality) could not be derived from experience. They had an existence prior to observation. He postulated that though experience was critical further analysis of the experience showed the operations of an active mind. For Kant the centre of the universe was the human mind. The mind prescribed the laws of nature. He asserted that Psychology could not be an experimental science since an objective study of the mind is not possible since it is not a physical thing. Even introspection was not possible scientific method since the mind was studying itself so how could the data be safe from corruption. Significance of Rationalism and Empiricism for Western Psychology Rationalism in Descartes 1. Truth is based on Mathematics. 2. Reductionism ie divide complex situations into simple components and solve -> re-assemble. Upto 3. Stressed innate ideas ie the mind comes pre-programmed. 4. Commonality between humans and animals was asserted and this was the same for many empiricists. 5. Interactionist with respect to the Mind-Body problem. 6. Subjectivity was regarded as respectable. 7. Consciousness was also regarded as a legitimate topic for study

Empiricism in Locke and Hume 1. Opposition to innate ideas but did recognize that operations were innate. Stress was on “tabula rasa” which put experience in a central place. 2. Emphasised pleasure/pain concepts in human motivation. 3. The science of human beings must be founded on experience and observation. 4. NB Hume wanted Newtonian certainty for Psychology (Social Sciences). Synthesis in Kant Categories (eg causation) are products of the mind. An active mind is required to process experience and to produce knowledge. Raised the issue of the problem of subject/object in the study of humans -> can we be both?

i. ii. iii.

 

   



      

 

Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882 CE) There is considerable agreement that four great minds set the stage for the 20th Century. They were Einstein (Relativity), Marx (Socialism), Freud (Unconscious) and Darwin (Evolution). Initially Darwin was moving toward a career as a minister of religion. He had a passion for Entomology! The Beagle (1831 to 1836 CE) A Cambridge university friend couldn’t go and so recommended Darwin. In 1835 CE the Beagle stopped at the Galapagos Islands in the eastern Pacific ocean. Collected great numbers of specimens (wouldn’t be allowed today!). Sought a unifying principle or theory to understand the VARIATIONS he saw in the species (birds, tortoises etc). Malthus’ monograph titled “Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798) emphasised the concept of food supply and its impact on population size. This provided Darwin with the mechanism to “explain” the variations. Survival of the best viewed from the perspective of the species as a whole NOT focusing on the individual. Individuals carry the traits that ‘fit’ the environment. SURVIV AL OF THE BEST FITTED Thus particular groups of individuals that possess particularly adaptive traits live long enough to reproduce and hence pass on these advantageous traits. Genetics has provided a mechanism for explaining the process of passing on traits but this was not known in Darwin’s time. Emphasis is on Environment-Species fit! Initially he applied the theory to non-human species but in 1871/74 CE he asserted that both humans and great apes descended from a common primate ancestor. Darwin asserted that emotions are the remnants of animal emotions -> remnants of by-gone survival needs. Modern Emotion theory and research is heavily influenced by Darwin’s ideas. STRUCTURALISM

 

  

     

 

   

    

Zeitgeist of European Psychology -> what is the structure of the ‘mind’. Shows a substantial affiliation with the philosophical speculations of the Rationalists. Characteristics Concern with the elements of the human mind Used introspection as its main method of investigation Edward Titchener (1867-1927CE) is regarded as the founding figure of this approach. FUNCTIONALISM Zeitgeist of US Psychology -> what is its practical use!!! Pioneers!! Prominent member was William James Functionalism = combination of evolution and pragmatism. Characteristics Concern with function of the mind (not structure) ie how do mental processes aid adaptation to the environment. Used all methods that would aid in studying the function of the mind. Seeks to apply findings to improve personal life, education, industry etc. Interested in individual differences PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Sigmund Freud (1856-1939CE) is regarded as the founder of this approach Based on three assumptions • Based on three assumptions 1. Actions determined by thoughts, feeling and wishes 2. Much of mental activity occurs out of awareness 3. Mental processes may conflict with one another Freud’s assertion that symptoms could be the product of unconscious motives was truly revolutionary. Research has indeed confirmed that the vast majority of mental activity occurs out of our conscious awareness. Freud’s assertion that symptoms could be the product of unconscious motives was truly revolutionary. Research has indeed confirmed that the vast majority of mental activity occurs out of our conscious awareness. BEHAVIOURISTIC PERSPECTIVE John Watson (1878-1958CE) is generally regarded as the founding figure of this perspective, but B F Skinner made very substantial contributions. Rejects any notion of a Cartesian dualism [body and mind] and follows Locke’s concept of the tabula rasa or blank slate Early Behaviourists wanted to make psychology an empirical science in a similar vein to the physical sciences. Psychology should be the study of observable behaviour only! Control the conditions and one can control the behaviour. [See Watson’s assertion that given a baby he could shape it personality to suit any one of a dozen professions]



    



  





  

Study focuses on two types of conditions rewards and punishments. This is the stimulus - response approach. HUMANIST PERSPECTIVE Carl Rogers (1902-1987CE) is regarded as one of the main founders of this perspective Emphasis on the actualisation of the self. Reaching ones potential is the goal of Humanistic approaches in therapy and other activities. This approach assumes the uniqueness of the individual. The approach utilises empathy and attempts to focus on the individual and is therefore often described as “person- centred”. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Partly in reaction to the dominance of Behaviourism and the emergence of modern computers the cognitive perspective regards unseen processes as legitimate areas of study for Psychology. As Gilbert (1999, p8) observes under behaviourism psychology produced “a generation of disaffected cognitive revolutionaries and an extraordinary number of well trained pigeons.” The cognitive approach is interested in how people perceive, process, retrieve and utilize information. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people process information and so have an affinity with the Rationalists and their questions on how we know! The methods used are experimental but done in such a way as to infer mental processes which themselves are not observed. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE In the same vein as the Functionalists the Evolutionary perspective asserts that human psychological traits and characteristics exist because they enable humans to survive. Therefore any study of human social or mental processes must take into account their evolutionary origins, e.g. the study of mating and aggression have been facilitated by an evolutionary perspective. The Evolutionary perspective also acknowledges the important role of genetics and therefore kinship in influencing behaviour. This approach is criticised from a Scientific point of view in that it is difficult to falsify. However the approach is very influential in modern Psychology...