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LET Reviewer Social Science Major Anthropology for TeachersConcept of AnthropologyA. Definition of Anthropology Comes from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study). Concerns explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world and it traces human evolution and cultural...

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LET Reviewer Social Science Major Anthropology for Teachers Concept of Anthropology A. Definition of Anthropology Comes from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study). Concerns explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world and it traces human evolution and cultural development from millions of years ago to present (Ember, 1993). It looks into the attributes of a particular human population. B. Two Major Disciplines of Anthropology B.1 Physical Anthropology "concerns with human evolution and human variation (Paleontology or paleoanthropology) B.2 Cultural Anthropology - deals with the study of culture consists’ of three areas as follows: 1. Linguistics- focuses on historical and descriptive or structural linguistics. It looks into the emergence of language and variations of language over time. 2. Archaeology-deals with cultural history 3. Ethnology (cultural anthropology)-studies cultural variation A. Schools of Thought in Cultural Anthropology -

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Early Evolutionism (Edward B. Taylor and Lewis Henry Morgan) - states that most societies were believed to pass through the same series of stages, to arrive ultimately at a common end Historical Particularism - Franz Boas. the proponent, believed that it was premature to formulate universal law since there is a need to study the context of society in which they appeared. Diffusionism (British, German and Austrian Anthropologists) spread the idea that most aspects of civilization had emerged in culture centers and later diffused outward. Functionalism (Bronislaw Malinowski). It holds that all culture traits serve the needs of individuals in a society; the function of culture traits is the ability to satisfy some basic or derived need. Structural-functionalist approach (Arthur Reginald Radcliffe-Brown) assumes that the various aspects of social behavior maintain a society's social structure- its total network of social relationships - rather than satisfying individual needs. It works in the following assumption: stability, harmony, equilibrium and evolution. Psychological Approaches (Edward Sapir, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead) seek to understand how psychological factors and processes may help us explain cultural practices. Later Evolutionism (Leslie White) states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work increased. Structuralism- Claude Levi-Strauss sees culture as it is expressed in art, ritual, and the patterns of daily life, as a surface representation of the underlying patterns of the human mind. Ethno science (ethnography) explains culture from the way people used to describe their activities. Cultural Ecology seeks to understand the relationship between culture and social environments Political economy centers on the impact of external political and economic processes, particularly as connected to colonialism and imperialism, on local events and cultures in the underdeveloped countries. Sociobiology involves the application of biological evolutionary principles to the social behavior of animals, including humans. Interpretive approaches consider cultures as texts to be analyzed for their meanings.

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Feminist Anthropology includes women's issues in the study of culture and society. Conflict Theory-advocates of this theory ask this question: "Who controls the scarce resources of a given society"? It assumes that society can be explained based on the following assumptions: economic determinism, dialectism and social action. B. Types of Research in Cultural Anthropology 1. Ethnography 2. Non-historical Research 3. Historical Research 4. Cross-Cultural Research

II. Human Evolution A. Beliefs about human beings Divine theory Systema Naturae by Cart Linneaus (carolus ) Jean Baptiste Lamarck- species could evolve Erasmus Darwin - inheritance of acquired characteristics Charles Lyeli-Principles of Geology

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B. Theory of Natural Selection proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace The theory of natural selection proposes that those organisms best adapted to a particular environment produce the most offspring overtime.

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C. Gregor Mendel's experiments Mendel's research in genetics and DNA and RNA led us to understand the mechanisms by which traits may be passed from one generation to the next. D. Sources of Biological Variation 1. Genetic recombination- random assortment, segregation and crossing-over 2. Mutation - change in DNA sequence E. Factors in Human Variation 1. Genetic Drif 2. Gene Flow 3. Influence of Physical Environment 4. Influence of social and cultural environment F. Humans are a product of the interaction of biological and cultural evolution.

G. Physical Variation among Humans genetic variation body build facial construction skin color height Lactase deficiency H. Problems about Human Variation 1. Racism 2. Gender Discrimination 2

I. Diagram on Human Evolution: Biological and Cultural TIME GEOLOGIC FOSSIL RECORD (YEARS AGO) EPOCH 5500 (3500 B.C.) 10,000(8.000 B.C.)

ARCHEOLOGICAL MAJOR CULTURAL PERIODS DEVELOPMENTS Bronze Age Cities and States; Social Inequality; Fulltime Craf specialist Neolithic Domestication of plants and animals; permanent villages Mesolithic

14,000 (12,000 B.C.)

Pleistocene

Earliest humans in New World Upper Paleolithic

40,000

Modem humans Homo sapiens Neanderthal Homo Middle sapiens Earliest Homo sapiens (?) Paleolithic

200,000

300,000

Broad spectrum food collecting; increasing sedimentary communities; many kinds of microliths

Cave paintings; female figurines; many kinds of blades tools

Religious beliefs(?) burials; Moustenan tools

Homo Erectus

700,000 1,500,000 1.800,000 Pliocene

Earliest hominids Australopithe-cus

Homo Habilis Lower Paleolithic

Hunting/scavenging; seasonal campsites; Oldowan tools

2,000,000

5,000,000

Miocene

22,500,000 29,000,000 32,000.000

Oligocene

Diversification of Apes Sivapithecus Dryopithecus Proconsu Earliest apes (?) Propliopithe-cus e.g. Aegyptopithe-cus Earliest anthropoids Parapithecids e.g. Apldium Ampipithecus tetonius Earliest Primates Purgaforius

38,000,000 3

Eocene

Earliest stone tools

50,000,000 53,500,000

Paleocene Late Cretaceous

70,000.000 Ember: 1996 1.

Homo erectus begun to evolve into Homo sapiens afer about 500,000 years ago. Pro-modem Homo sapiens have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. The oldest fossil remains of a modem looking human have been found in South Africa. Two theories about the origins of modem humans: Single-origin theory- modem humans emerged in just one part of the Old World (the near east and recently South Africa. 2. Continuous Evolution Theory-modem humans emerged gradually in various parts of the Old World J. Broad spectrum collection (Mesolithic Period) was associated with the development of sedentary life K. Domestication of Plants and Animals (Neolithic Revolution) L. Population generally Increased afer plant and animal domestication.

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M. Growth of Cities and States The key criterion for state is the presence of hierarchical and centralized decision-making affecting a substantial population. Most states have duties with public buildings, full time craf and religious specialists, an official art style and a hierarchical social structure. Earliest states: Southern Iraq (Sumer) in the Near East, in Mesopotamia, the valley of Oaxaca and later in Teotehuaca

III. The Study of Culture A. Definition Culture is personality writ large (Ruth Benedict). It is a sort of group personality that forms an overall cultural orientation within which there is a considerable variation. Anything shared by human beings. Cultural configurations- the Idea that cultures possess internal coherence and consistency. Culture is not just the sum of individuals who adhere to them, because it also includes developed and elaborated traits with greater intensity and richness. This is our cultural heritage. Cultural Relativism is the attitude that a society's customs and ideas should be described objectively and understood in the context of that society's problems and opportunities. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to regard ones culture as superior B. The Ability of Human Beings to Produce and Acquire Culture Can be attributed to the Following Biological Characteristics: Large brain Bipedal Opposable thumb Well developed vocal chords Long period of dependency Reproduction is not seasonal; human beings can reproduce during fertile period C. Theories About the Development of Personality 1. Theory of Sigmund Freud- Origin of Society Hypothesis- Oedipal Complex (incest and exogamy) 4

2. Malinowski – Matrilineal Family 3. Benedict and Mead emphasized the ways culture develops individual personality. 4. Kardiner - illustrated the presence of various personality types in a culture. Personalities differ because of the variations in cultural institutions. 5. M. Whiting and L. Child suggest that childrearing practices develop certain personality types. D. National character - modal characteristics of a people. E. Objections to National Character Studies 1. Abnormal personality F. Two ways by which culture can be internalized: 1. Habituation-human beings learn certain techniques 2. Education - skills are taught; directed Seaming process G. Language and Culture 1. Communication is a function of language 2. Forms of communication  verbal  nonverbal 3. Structural linguistics try to discover the rules of  phonology (the patterning of sounds);  morphology (the patterning of sound sequences and words), and  syntax (the patterning of phrases and sentences) that predicts how most speakers of language talk. 4. Historical linguists study the origin of languages. 5. Sociolinguistics concerns about the ethnography of speaking- that is, with cultural and sub cultural patterns of speaking in different social contexts social status and speech sex differences in speech H. Sex and Culture Sex and Gender Differences Gender Roles in productive and domestic activities; political leadership and warfare Status of Men and Women IV. Economic Systems A. Subsistence Economy  Food Collection - hunting, fishing and gathering  Agricultural economy  Pastoralism B. Patterns of Subsistence in the Philippines C. The use of technology D. Access to natural resources E. Organization of labor F. Market or commercial exchange economy V. Social Stratification A. Definition Social Stratification pertains to division in society due to access or right to certain advantages. The advantages may be in the form of economic resources, power and prestige 5

B. Type of Societies 1. Egalitarian societies are societies in which many positions of prestige in any given age-sex grade could be filled by those who are capable. 2. Rank societies are characterized by social groups having unequal access to prestige or status but not significantly unequal access to economic resources or power 3. Class societies are characterized by having unequal access to economic resources and power. Class society ranges from open class system to close class system. VI. Marriage and Family A. Definition of Marriage Marriage means a socially approved sexual and economic union between a woman and a man. B. Types of Marriages By Number Monogamy Polygamy- polyandry and polygyny and group marriage Whom should one marry? Endogenous marriage and exogenous marriage Cousin marriages Levirate and Sororate C. Types of Family By composition; Nuclear, Extended By Residence: Patrilocal, Matrilocal, Bilocal Neolocal, Avunculocal By Orientation: Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Bilateral Unilineal Descent patrilineages, matrilineages, patricians, matridans Kinship Terminology: consanguineal kin, affinal kin By power: Patriarchal, Matriarchal,Egalitarian D. Economic Consideration in Marriage Bride price Dowry E. Incest Taboo - is the prohibition of sexual intercourse or marriage between mother and son, father and daughter, and brother and sister, Incest taboo is universal, however, the Incan and Hawaiian royal families allow incest. F. Theories on the universality of incest taboo 1. Childhood-Familiarity Theory-Children raised together are not sexually attracted to each other when they grow up. 2. Freud's Psychoanalytic theory-suggest that the son may be attracted to the mother but the father might retaliate against the son. Hence such feelings must be renounce or repressed, 3. Family disruption theory (Malinowski) sexual competition among family members may create so much tension and rivalry thus may result to disruption of the functions of the family. 4. Cooperation Theory- incest taboo promotes cooperation among family members. 5. Inbreeding theory-emphasizes tie damaging consequences of inbreeding VII. Social Organization A. Types of Social Organization 1. Simple social organization is one characterized by relatively few and homogenous social units and less elaborate cultural forms. The family or the household serves as the basic social unit around which all activities revolved. 6

2. Complex Social Organization is one characterized by greater internal heterogeneity of social units and more elaborate cultural forms. Differentiation in the structure of social relations is clear-cut and it revolves around specialized institutions. B. Some Examples of Associations Membership Criteria

Recruitment Voluntary

Universally Ascribed Variably Ascribed Achieved

Ethnic Associations Regional Associations Occupational Associations Political Parties. Special Interest Groups

Non-voluntary Age-Sets Most unisex associations Conscripted army

C. Political Organizations: band, tribe, chiefdom and state

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

D. Resolution of conflict: community action, informal adjudication without power, ritual reconciliation -apology, oaths and ordeals, codified laws and courts, feuding, raiding, large - scale confrontation E. Filipino Indigenous ethnic communities may be grouped into five general types (Jocano, 1998): Pisan (campsite) - Agta term for small exogamous local groups consisting mostly of kinsmen Puro (settlement) - Sulod term for semi-sedentary, amorphous aggregate of persons who live in a particular and named settlement (Swidden or Kaingin) Ili (village) - Bontoc in origin which corresponds to village type organization Magani (district) - Agusan Manobo, Sodat organization of dry crop farmers whose social organization corresponds rank organization Banwa (domain) - Manuvu term for self-contained villages VIII. Religion and Magic A. Definition of Religion Religion is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power

B. Religion is universal for the following .reasons: Need for intellectual understanding Decrease guilt, anxiety or uncertainty Need for community C. Variations in religious beliefs 1. 2. 3.

Existence of impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. mana and taboo) Supernatural beings of nonhuman origins (gods and spirits) Supernatural beings of human origin (ghosts and ancestor spirits)

D. Ways of Communicating with the supernatural include prayer, doing things to the body and the mind, simulation, feast and sacrifices E. Magic is the belief that actions can compel the supernatural to act in a particular and intended way. Sorcery and witchcraf are attempts to make the spirits work harm against people. F. Religious/Magical practitioners include shamans, sorcerers or witches, mediums and priests G. Religion and Political Movements 7

IX. The Arts * , A. Body Decoration and Adornment: paint or objects such as feathers, jewelry, skins and clothing. Body decorations may be used to delineate social position, rank, sex, occupation, local and ethnic identity B. Visual Art Artistic Differences in Egalitarian and Stratified Societies Egalitarian Society Stratified Society Repetition of simple elements Much Integration of unlike elements Little empty or "irrelevant" space empty space Asymmetrical design Symmetrical design Unenclosed figures Enclosed figures C. Music D. Folklore X. Culture Changes A. Discovery and Invention B. Diffusion C. Acculturation D. Revolution E. Types of Culture Change Commercialization Religious Change Economic Change Social Philosophy PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

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Philosophy From two Greek words: Philein which means "to love", and Sophia which means "wisdom". According to Manuel Velasquez, philosophy is "the pursuit of wisdom about what it means to be a human being, what the fundamental nature of God and reality is. what the sources and limits of our knowledge are, and what is good and right In our lives and in our societies, Traditionally defined as the sciences of all things studied from the viewpoint of their ultimate causes under the light of human reason alone. (According to Bertram/ Russel, philosophy is the no man's land between theology and science.) Three Traditional Divisions: 1. Epistemology - literally means "the study of knowledge". It deals with questions of knowledge (including the structure, reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge); truth, validity, and logic; and a variety of linguistic concerns, (e.g. the question of whether truth is relative) 2. Metaphysics ~ addresses questions of reality (including the meaning and nature of

being); the nature of mind, self, and human freedom; and some topics that overlap with religion, such as the existence of God, the destiny of the universe, and the immortality of the soul. (E.g. question of whether human behavior is free or determined) 8

3. Ethics - study of values and moral principles and how they relate to human conduct to our social and political institutions, (e.g. question of whether human beings have the moral obligation to love and serve others, or obligation only to themselves) * social philosophy falls under this division,

Social Philosophy – is the study of society and its processes and activities with particular emphasis on the basic principles underlying social structures and functions. It is the study of the rightness or wrongness of societal orders, institutions, structures, systems, functions, and processes. (Thomas Hobbes first used the term "social philosophy". He is also widely considered as the father of social philosophy.) Prerequisite to an understanding of social philosophy are the following six basic factors or concerns: First: An understanding of nature of associative life (the person existing in correlation with society). Second: Associative life requiring a set of values towards which all social processes and activities are directed. Third: The means to the set of values essential in the associative life Fourth: The law. Fifh: The obligation of the individuals to the state and the state to the individuals. Sixth: The ideal of social and individual justice. To sum up, the study of social philosophy revolves around these six lectors: associations, values, power, rights, obligations and justice. SOCIAL PHILSOPHIES A. Classical Realism Realism is the philosophy that regards the universe as composed of beings existing independently but related and forming a hierarchical structure called cosmos or totality. Classical Realism distinguishes a person from other living substances as endowed with two natures: animal and rational. Animal nature with its various appetites and sensual desires is perfected by the practice of the habits of the "golden mean" between the two extremes of excess and deficiency. These habits enable a person to develop the moral virtues of temperance and courage. These moral virtues, in turn, enable a person to perfect the rational nature by achieving the intellectual virtues of wisdom, prudence, and art. However, full human natur...