Literature Review on the Cognitive Dissonance Theory PDF

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Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Literature Review on the Cognitive Dissonance Theory COMS 4381 01 Dr. Brandau November 9, 2018

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LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

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Literature Review on the Cognitive Dissonance Theory Introduction The renowned social psychologist Leon Festinger molded the Cognitive Dissonance Theory at the onset of the 1950’s (Acharya, Blackwell & Sen, 2018). The theory suggests that the inconsistencies amongst the cognitions such as belief, knowledge, or opinion regarding the environment, one’s behavior or oneself results in the generation of uncomfortable feelings of motivation usually referred to as the state of cognitive dissonance (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). Generally, by the theory, people do not feel comfortable when they undergo cognitive dissonance (Tanford & Montgomery, 2014). Therefore, they are motivated to retrieve a suitable state. The gravity of the existent dissonance is dependent on the significance as well as the ability of the cognitions involved. Experiencing an increased dissonance level leads to pressure coupled with motivation to decrease the dissonance. Findings from diverse research indicate that dissonance takes place where people fail to act according to their act attitude (Vaidis, 2014). Notably, Festinger took note of three ways as a method of dealing with cognitive dissonance (E. Harmon-Jones, C. Harmon-Jones & N. Levy, 2015). It includes altering one or various involved elements in the relationship of dissonance such as the change of an opinion to fit a particular behavior. It also comprises the addition of new elements to decrease the inconsistency including the adoption of opinions that suits a behavior together with the reduction of the significance of the involved elements. In lieu of the above, the study aims to provide a review of the literature on the Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory The Cognitive Dissonance Theory has its basis on three basic assumptions. The first assumption is that sensitivity by humans exists to the inconsistencies between beliefs along with

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actions (Miller, Clark & Jehle, 2015). In line with the theory, humans recognize at a certain level when they act in a manner that is inconsistent with their opinions, beliefs or attitudes. In essence, humans become aware when they realize an inconsistency. For instance, an individual that believes that cheating is wrong, yet find themselves doing so in an exam, will realize that they are affected by the inconsistency. The second assumption is that the inconsistency recognition will lead to dissonance (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). As such, it will motivate the person to come up with a solution to the dissonance. There is an immediate recognition of the violation of one's principles. According to the theory, it will lead to mental anguish. The level of dissonance may vary with the significance of the principle, belief, or the attitude together with the inconsistency level between one's behavior in conjunction with the belief. However, in accordance with the theory, the greater the level of dissonance, the more it will lead to the motivation to resolve it. The third assumption is that resolutions to dissonance can be in three fundamental ways (Draycott & Dabbs, 2012). a) Change of beliefs E. Harmon-Jones, C. Harmon-Jones & N. Levy (2015) note that it is the most straightforward manner of resolving the dissonance between beliefs coupled with actions. On the one hand, an individual could decide that cheating is an action acceptable to them. In such a case, it would assist to resolve the dissonance. On the other hand, where the belief is a core part of the individual, such an action is not likely to be taken. Besides, the fundamental beliefs in conjunction with attitudes of an individual are usually stable that changing them is not so easy. It is because humans rely on their view of the world in the predictions of events as well as their organization of thoughts. As a result, despite the option being the easiest for resolving dissonance, it is not common (Rubio, 2017).

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b) Change of actions This option is where an individual ensures that an action undertaken is not repeated. Tanford and Montgomery (2014) established that guilt together with anxiety could be significant motivators for altering behavior. Therefore, an individual could decide not to partake in cheating on an exam. In such a case, they could assist with resolving the dissonance. The aversive conditions are mostly a poor method of learning, particularly where individuals condition themselves. On the other hand, an individual could benefit from the action, which is not consistent with their beliefs. In this case, it would be beneficial to get rid of the feeling without altering their actions or beliefs (Telci, Maden & Kantur, 2011). c) Changing the action perception It is an increasingly complex resolution method where it deals with altering the manner in which an action is perceived. In other words, it is rationalizing one's actions. For instance, an individual could opt to maintain the view that the exam they cheated on was not important for their growth. On the other hand, they could view the action of cheating as one that involves every member of that class. This method attempts to view the action differently so that it is not inconsistent with one's actions (Viole & Nawrocki, 2012). The phenomena of Cognitive Dissonance The phenomena could be categorized into four aspects: selective information exposure, postdecision dissonance, induced compliance, and hypocrisy induction. Selectively information exposure This area is concerned with the tendency of people to expose themselves selectively to information. As previously mentioned, dissonance is an aversive state of motivation. Naturally, people tend to avoid the situations that arouse dissonance. It means that people prefer being

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exposed to the information that is in support of their beliefs instead of non-supportive information with the potential of arousing dissonance (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). Importantly, the hypothesis of the dissonance theory that deals with selective exposure questions the significance of the influence of mass media on its audience. Generally, where people seek the sources of media that strengthen their beliefs, there is the blunting of the mass media’s powerful effects (Miller, Clark & Jehle, 2016). Most of the time people are proficient at justifying their actions. An example is where smokers cognitively reduce their smoking dangers. It may involve their dismissal of an extensive research body concerning the ill effects attributed to cigarettes together with the rejection of the adverse smoking aspects. In the same manner, various theologians assert that science fails to settle the issue of the possibility of God’s superintendence in nature since scientific evidence is not relevant to the questions in theology. Rubio (2017) is of the opinion that the apologists of religion would embrace eagerly any scientific evidence that is in support of their religious belief. In spite of being arguably irrational, their behavior could be explained regarding the hypothesis of selective exposure. While there could be some inclination for supportive information, E. Harmon-Jones, C. Harmon-Jones, and N. Levy (2015) stress the notion that such a preference is only one of the numerous influences on the exposure to information. As a result, it could be overridden by various considerations including the perceived fairness, curiosity, as well as the information utility (Wangenheim, 2005). Post-decision dissonance Close call decisions could generate significant internal tension following a decision. After a decision has been made, people usually agonize regarding whether the decision was right. The degree of the dissonance is dependent on various factors including:

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY 

The significance of the issue

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Delays in selecting between two options which are equally attractive

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Complexity in the reversal of the decision

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The attractiveness of the selected alternative

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Similarity level between the alternatives

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The diversity of options considered

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Because of the regrets along with the second thoughts following a tough decision, people usually seek information that rationalizes their decisions. Sales personnel refer to this form of dissonance as the buyer’s remorse (Acharya, Blackwell & Sen, 2018). It results after something valuable is bought, such as a house or a car. The chosen alternative is not always positive, and the alternative that is rejected is seldom negative. Recommended ways to decrease the dissonance are seeking exclusive information regarding the car bought and avoiding the negative information concerning it. By reassuring the buyers with a note of congratulations, after-sales service, as well as additional advertising, sellers can address the post-purchase dissonance (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). Brehm’s experiment demonstrates in a clear manner the ability of the people to reassure them. Various women were given different appliances (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). Later, they were tasked with rating them based on their attractiveness. Each of them was informed that they could leave with one of the appliances as a gift. Besides, they were given the freedom to choose between two products that they had rated as equally attractive (Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones & Levy, 2015). After several minutes, they were asked to repeat the process. The results revealed the women’s attractiveness' rating of their selected appliances was high while the rejected appliance rating was low. It implied that they spread the alternatives

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apart to decrease the dissonance. The Mills experiment indicated the manner in which moral attitudes could change drastically following a decision made (Vaidis, 2014). To begin with, he evaluated the attitudes of sixth graders to cheating. Later, they took part in a competitive exam that had prizes given to the top performers. As it was expected, some of the students cheated while others refrained from it. When it was inquired of their feelings to cheating, the students that cheated indicated an increasingly lenient attitude towards it while those that refrained from it became stricter concerning it. Draycott and Dabbs (2012) have shown that where people commit in a small manner, the tendency that they will commit further in that particular direction is heightened. The foot-in-door technique is the process of utilizing small favors in order to encourage individuals to comply with larger requests. Induced compliance Induced compliance is another area of research in the persuasive communication study. The theory envisions counter-attitudinal action that is freely selected with decreased incentive results in the alteration of attitude (Viole & Nawrocki, 2012). To fully comprehend the principle, it is essential to differentiate between internal and external justification. External justification is the reason for an individual’s dissonant behavior which resides in the situation including praise, politeness, or reward and not the individual (Wangenheim, 2005). On the other hand, internal justification is a decrease of dissonance by altering something concerning an individual such as one’s attitude. Where a person states a belief, which is not easy to rationalize externally, the individual will endeavor to vindicate it internally by making their attitudes increasingly steady with the statement. Remarkably, the Cognitive Dissonance Theory forecasts that people begin to believe their lies; however, it is only where there lacks sufficient external justification for the statements that

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY are contrary to their original attitudes (Draycott & Dabbs, 2012). In such a case, the powerful form of permanent change in attitude has been termed as the paradigm of saying is believing. People tend to alter their attitudes as a result of succeeding in convincing themselves that their prior attitudes were mistaken. Numerous experiments have investigated these speculations scientifically. The most extensive and best known is the quoted-compliance study carried out by Festinger and Carlsmith (Acharya, Blackwell & Sen, 2018). In the experiment, they requested the college students to conduct a set of tasks that were increasingly repetitive as well as boring. Later, they convinced them to notify a potential female subject that the tasks were pleasant and interesting. Various male students were given a twentydollar reward for expressing their enthusiasm concerning the task while others were offered one dollar (Vaidis, 2014). Following the experiment, the students that were given twenty-dollars to lie rated their activity as dull, but those that were given one dollar indicated that the activity was enjoyable. Festinger revealed that one dollar was sufficient to encourage compliance to the request of the experimenters. In such a case, the participants had to come up with another justification. They altered their attitude towards the activities to bring it in line with their behavior. On the other hand, in an essential set of experiments, induced white students in college were tasked with writing an essay that demonstrated counter-attitudinal advocacy. The experiment meant that the students publicly endorsed the proposal to boost the number of scholarship funds for the African-American students, which meant slashing the funds to the white students (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). To decrease the high dissonance that was aroused by the situation, the students persuaded themselves that they believed in the policy. Also, there was the adoption by the students of a supportive and favorable attitude towards their African-American counterparts. Essentially, external justification arises in

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LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY diverse forms, including the willingness to undertake an unpleasant activity as a show of kindness to a friendly individual (Draycott & Dabbs, 2012). Hypocrisy induction Sometimes, the responsibility of a persuader is not entirely to inspire the people to have preferred attitudes as it is to inspire them to act on their existent attitudes. The fundamental idea is that by highlighting the inconsistency of an individual’s actions in conjunction with their attitudes referred to as their hypocrisy, can produce dissonance that is reduced by a change in behavior (Tanford & Montgomery, 2014). In Stones experiment, college students were faced with their hypocrisy. The participants were tasked with composing besides reciting a speech that supported the utilization of condoms (Telci, Maden & Kantur, 2011). Furthermore, they were alerted of their past failures to utilize condoms that led to a state of high dissonance. As it was expected, the students had an increased likelihood of purchasing condoms following the experiment. The Cognitive Dissonance Theory results in the forecasting that, where a person undergoes a painful experience to attain a certain objective, the goal becomes increasingly attractive in comparison to those that attain the same goals with a reduced effort. The process is referred to as the effort justification. Diverse groups including cults coupled with college fraternities usually exploit the phenomenon by imposing severe rituals of initiation that serves as a commitment along with value for joining them (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser & Gullifor, 2016). Conclusion The Cognitive Dissonance Theory majors on the creation of knowledge regarding critical psychological individual’s processes. Particularly, it concentrates on the relationships among the cognitions that are the knowledge elements, which people have established in respect to their

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beliefs, environments, behaviors, feelings, perceptions or attitudes. Because human nature is the core subject in the various social sciences, the Cognitive Dissonance Theory has risen the interest and resulted in necessary research in diverse academic domains. The theory is counterintuitive as it fits into the theories of social psychology, which are counterintuitive. The theory has been quite resilient as well as useful in the diverse contexts despite the widespread evolution. Notably, the theory has challenged behaviors already established by recommending the fact that the elements in cognition should be considered in the study of behaviors along with learning. Therefore, the Cognitive Dissonance Theory has been applied to numerous settings in the real world. It is vital to note that the conditions that evoke dissonance are different depending on the cultures.

References

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Acharya, A., Blackwell, M., & Sen, M. (2018). Explaining Preferences from Behavior: A Cognitive Dissonance Approach. The Journal Of Politics, 80(2), 400-411. Draycott, S., & Dabbs, A. (2012). Cognitive dissonance 1: An overview of the literature and its integration into theory and practice in clinical psychology. British Journal Of Clinical Psychology, 37(3), 341-353. Harmon-Jones, E., Harmon-Jones, C., & Levy, N. (2015). An Action-Based Model of CognitiveDissonance Processes. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 24(3), 184-189. Hinojosa, A., Gardner, W., Walker, H., Cogliser, C., & Gullifor, D. (2016). A Review of Cognitive Dissonance Theory in Management Research. Journal Of Management, 43(1), 170-199. Miller, M., Clark, J., & Jehle, A. (2016). Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger), 1-5. Rubio, F. (2017). The Process of Jesus’ Deification and Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Numen, 64(2-3), 119-152. Tanford, S., & Montgomery, R. (2014). The Effects of Social Influence and Cognitive Dissonance on Travel Purchase Decisions. Journal Of Travel Research, 54(5), 596-610. Telci, E., Maden, C., & Kantur, D. (2011). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A marketing and management perspective. Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences, 24, 378-386. Vaidis, D. (2014). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Oxford Bibliographies Online Datasets. Viole, F., & Nawrocki, D. (2012). Embracing the Cognitive Dissonance Between Expected Utility Theory and Prospect Theory. SSRN Electronic Journal. Wangenheim, F. (2005). Postswitching Negative Word of Mouth. Journal Of Service Research, 8(1), 67-78....