Living Environment Textbook-2 PDF

Preview

Summary

Download Living Environment Textbook-2 PDF

Description

Chapter 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes and Sustainability “No civilization has survived the ongoing destruction of its natural support system. Nor will ours.” - Lester R. Brown Definitions (in order of appearance) Sustainability- Ability of earth’s various systems, including human cultural systems and economics, to survive and adapt to changing environmental conditions indefinitely Environment- All external conditions, factors, matter, and energy, living and nonliving, that affect any living organism or other specified system. Environmental Science- Interdisciplinary study that uses information and ideas from the physical sciences (such as biology, chemistry, and geology) with those from the social sciences and humanities (such as economics, politics, and ethics) to learn how nature works, how we interact with the environment, and how we can help to deal with environmental problems Ecology- Biological science that studies the relationships between living organisms and their environment; study of the structure and function of nature Organism- Any form of life Species- Group of similar organisms, and for sexually reproducing organisms, they are a set of individuals that can mate and produce fertile offspring. Every organism is a member of a certain species. Ecosystem- One or more communities of different species interacting with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up their nonliving environment Environmentalism- Social movement dedicated to protecting the earth’s life-support systems for us and for other species Scientific Principles of Sustainability- To live more sustainably we need to rely on solar energy, preserve biodiversity, and recycle the chemicals that we use. These three principles of sustainability are scientific lessons from nature based on observing how life on the earth has survived and thrived for 3.5 billion years.

Nutrients- Any chemical an organism must take in to live, grow, or reproduce Solar Energy- Direct radiant energy from the sun and a number of indirect forms of energy produced by the direct input of such radiant energy. Principal indirect forms of solar energy include wind, falling and flowing water (hydropower), and biomass (solar energy converted into chemical energy stored in the chemical bonds of organic compounds in trees and other plants)- none of which would exist without direct solar energy Biodiversity- Variety of different species (species diversity), genetic variability among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), variety of ecosystems (ecological diversity), and functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities (functional diversity) Chemical Cycling/Nutrient Cycling- The continual cycling of chemicals necessary for life through natural processes such as the water cycle and feeding interactions; processes that evolved due to the fact that the earth gers essentially no new inputs of these chemicals Natural Capital- Natural resources and natural services that keep us and other species alive and support our economies Natural Resources- Materials such as air, water, and soil and energy in nature that are essential or useful to humans Natural Services/Ecosystem Services- Processes of nature, such as purification of air and water and pest control, which support life and human economies Social Science Principles of Sustainability- To live more sustainably we (1) need to include the harmful health and environmental costs of producing the goods and services in their market prices (full-cost pricing), (2) learn to work together to focus on solutions to environmental problems that will benefit the largest number of people and the environment now and in the future (win-win solutions), and (3) accept our responsibility to future generations to leave the planet’s life-support systems in at least as good a shape as what we now enjoy (responsibility to future generations) Full-cost Pricing- Finding ways to include the harmful environmental and health costs

of producing and using goods in their market prices Resource- Anything obtained from the environment to meet human needs and wants. It can also be applied to other species. Inexhaustible/Perpetual Resource- Essentially inexhaustible resource on a human time scale because it is renewed continuously. Solar energy is an example. Renewable Resource- Resource that can be replenished rapidly (hours to several decades) through natural processes as long as it is not used up faster than it is replaced. Examples include trees in forests, grasses in grasslands, wild animals, fresh surface water in lakes and streams, most groundwater, fresh air, and fertile soil. If such a resource is used faster than it is replenished, it can be depleted and converted into nonrenewable resource. Sustainable Yield- Highest rate at which a potentially renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply Non-renewable/Exhaustible Resource- Resource that exists in a fixed amount (stock) in the earth’s crust and has the potential for renewal by geological, physical, and chemical processes taking place over hundreds of millions to billions of years. Examples include copper, aluminum, coal, and oil. We classify these resources as exhaustible because we are extracting and using them at a much faster rate than they are formed. Environmental Degradation/Natural Capital Degradation- Depletion or destruction of a potentially renewable resource such as soil, grassland, forest, or wildlife that is used faster than it is naturally replenished. If such use continues, the resource becomes nonrenewable (on a human time scale) or nonexistent (extinct). More-developed Countries- Country that is highly industrialized and has a high per capita GDP. Less-developed Countries- Country that has low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate per capita GDP. Most are located in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Pollution- Undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of air, water, soil, or food that can adversely affect the health, survival, or activities of

humans or other living organisms. Point Sources- Single identifiable source that discharges pollutants into the environment. Examples include the smokestack of a power plant or an industrial plant, the drainpipe of a meatpacking plant, chimney of a house, or exhaust pipe of an automobile. Nonpoint Sources- Broad and diffuse areas, rather than points, from which pollutants enter bodies of surface water or air. Examples include runoff of chemicals and sediments from cropland, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, parking lots, lawns, and golf courses. Pollution Cleanup- Device or process that removes or reduces the level of a pollutant after it has been produced or has entered the environment. Examples include automobile emission control devices and sewage treatment plants. Pollution Prevention- Device, process, or strategy used to prevent a potential pollutant from forming or entering the environment or to sharply reduce the amount entering the environment. Affluence- Wealth that results in high levels of consumption and unnecessary waste of resources, based mostly on the assumption that buying more and more materials goods will bring fulfillment and happiness Ecological Footprint- Amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply a population with the renewable resources it uses and to absorb or dispose of the wastes from such resource use. It is a measure of the average environmental impact of populations in different countries and areas. Per Capita Ecological Footprint- Amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply each person or population with the renewable resources they use and to absorb or dispose of the wastes from such resource use. It measures the average environmental impact of individuals or population in different countries and areas. Sustainability Revolution- Major cultural change in which people learn how to reduce their ecological footprints and live more sustainably, largely by copying nature and using the six principles of sustainability to guide their lifestyles and economies

Exponential Growth- Growth in which some quantity, such as population size or economic output, increases at a constant rate per unit of time. An example is the growth sequence 2, 4 , 8, 16, 32, 64, and son on, which increases by 100% at each interval. When the increase in quantity over time is plotted, this type of growth yields a curve shaped like the letter J. Poverty- Inability of people to meet their basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter. Environmental Worldview- Set of assumptions and beliefs about how people think the world works, what they think their role in the world should be, and what they believe is right and wrong environmental behavior (environmental ethics). Environmental Ethics- Human beliefs about what is right or wrong with how we treat the environment. Planetary management Worldview- Worldview holding that humans are separate from nature, that nature exists mainly to meet our needs and increasing wants, and that we can use our ingenuity and technology to manage earth’s life-support systems, mostly for our benefit. It assumes that economic growth is unlimited. Stewardship Worldview- Worldview holding that we can manage the earth for our benefit but that we have an ethical responsibility to be caring and responsible managers, or stewards, of the earth. It calls for encouraging environmentally beneficial forms of economic growth and discouraging environmentally harmful forms. Environmental Wisdom Worldview- Worldview holding that humans are part of and totally dependent on nature and that nature exists for all species, not just for us. Our success depends on learning how the earth sustains itself and integrating such environmental wisdom into the ways we think and act. Environmentally Sustainable Society- Society that meets the current and future needs of its people for basic resources in a just and equitable manner without compromising the ability of future generations of humans and other species from meeting their basic needs Natural Income- Renewable resources such as plants, animals, and soil provided by

natural capital

Chapter 2: Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems “Science is built up of facts, as a house is built of stones; but an accumulation of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is a house.” - Henri Poincare Definitions Science- Attempts to discover order in nature and use that knowledge to make predictions about what is likely to happen in nature. Data- Factual information collected by scientists. Scientific Hypothesis- An educated guess that attempts to explain a scientific law or certain scientific observations. Model- Approximate representation or simulation of a system being studied. Scientific Theory- A well-tested and widely accepted scientific hypothesis. Peer Review- Process of scientists reporting details of the methods and models they used, the results of their experiments, and the reasoning behind their hypotheses for other scientists working in the same field (their peers) to examine and criticize. Scientific Law/Law of Nature- Description of what scientists find happening in nature repeatedly in the same way. Tentative/Frontier Science- Preliminary scientific data, hypotheses, and models that have not been widely tested and accepted. Reliable Science- Concepts and ideas that widely accepted by experts in a particular field of the natural or social sciences.

Unreliable Science- Scientific results or hypotheses presented as reliable science without having undergone the rigors of the peer review process. Matter- Anything that has mass (the amount of material in an object) and takes up space). On the earth, where gravity is present, we weigh an object to determine its mass. Element- Chemical, such as hydrogen (H), iron (Fe), sodium (Na),carbon (C.), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), whose distinctly different atoms serve as the basic building blocks of all matter. Two or more elements combine to form the compounds that make up most of the world’s matter. Compound- Combination of atoms, or oppositely charged ions, of two or more elements held together by attractive forces called chemical bonds. Examples are NaCl, CO2, and C6H12O6. Atom- Minute unit made of subatomic particles that is the basic building block of all chemical elements and thus all matter; the smallest unit of an element that can exist and still have the unique characteristics of that element. Atomic Theory- Idea that all elements are made up of atoms; the widely accepted scientific theory in chemistry. Neutrons (n)- Elementary particle in the nuclei of all atoms (except hydrogen-1). It has a relative mass of 1 and no electric charge. Protons (p)- positively charged particle in the nuclei of all atoms. Each proton has a relative mass of 1 and a single positive charge. Electrons (e)- Tiny particle moving around outside the nucleus of an atom. Each electron has one unit of negative charge and almost no mass. Nucleus- Extremely tiny center of an atom, making up most of the atom’s mass. It contains one or more positively charged protons and one or more neutrons with no electrical charge (except for a hydrogen- atom, which has one proton and no neutrons in its nucleus).

Atomic Number- Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Mass Number- Sum of the number of neutrons (n) and the number of protons (p) in the nucleus of an atom. It gives an approximate mass of that atom. Isotopes- Two or more forms of a chemical element that have the same number of protons but different mass numbers because they have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Molecule- Combination of two or more atoms of the same chemical element (such as O2 ) or different chemical elements (such as H2O) held together by chemical bonds. Ion- Atom or group of atoms with one or more positive (+) or negative (-) electrical charges. Acidity- Chemical characteristic that helps determine how a substance dissolved in water (a solution) will interact with and affect its environment; based on the comparative amounts of hydrogen ions (H+ ) and hydroxide ions (OH- ) contained in a particular volume of the solution. pH- Numeric value that indicates the relative acidity or alkalinity of a substance on a scale of 0 to 14, with the neutral point at 7. Acid solutions have pH values lower than 7; basic or alkaline solutions have pH values greater than 7. Chemical Formula- Shorthand way to show the number of atoms (or ions) in the basic structural unit of a compound. Examples include HO2, NaCl, and C6H12O6. Organic Compounds- Compounds containing carbon atoms combined with each other and with atoms of one or more other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, and fluorine. All other compounds are called inorganic compounds. Inorganic Compounds- All compounds not classified as organic compounds.

Cells- Smallest living unit of an organism. Each cell is encased in an outer membrane or wall and contains genetic material (DNA) and other parts to perform its life function. Organisms such as bacteria consist of only one cell, but most organisms contain many cells. Genes- Coded units of information about specific traits that are passed from parents to offspring during reproduction. They consist of segments of DNA molecules found in chromosomes. Trait- Characteristic passed on from parents to offspring during reproduction in an animal or plant. Chromosome- A grouping of genes and associated proteins in plant and animal cells that carry certain types of genetic information. Physical Change- Process that alters one or more physical properties of an element or a compound without changing its chemical composition. Examples include changing the size and shape of a sample of matter (crushing ice and cutting aluminum foil) and changing a sample of matter from one physical state to another (boiling and freezing water). Chemical Change/Chemical Reaction- Interaction between chemicals in which the chemical composition of the elements or compounds involved changes. Nuclear Change- Process in which nuclei of certain isotopes spontaneously change, or are forced to change, into one or more different isotopes. The three principal types of nuclear change are natural radioactivity, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion. Radioactive Decay- Change of a radioisotope to a different isotope by the emission of radioactivity. Nuclear Fission- Nuclear change in which the nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass numbers (such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239) are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by a neutron. This process releases more neutrons and a large amount of energy.

Nuclear Fusion- Nuclear change in which two nuclei of isotopes of elements with a low mass number (such as hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3) are forced together at extremely high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (such as helium-4). This process releases a large amount of energy. Law of Conservation of Matter- In any physical or chemical change, matter is neither created nor destroyed but merely changed from one form to another; in physical and chemical changes, existing atoms are rearranged into different spatial patterns (physical changes) or different combinations (chemical changes). Energy- Capacity to do work by performing mechanical, physical, chemical, or electrical tasks or to cause a heat transfer between two objects at different temperatures. Kinetic Energy- Energy that matter has because of its mass and speed, or velocity. Thermal Energy (heat)- The energy generated and measured as heat. Electromagnetic Radiation- Forms of kinetic energy traveling as electromagnetic waves. Examples include radio waves, TV waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Potential Energy- Energy stored in an object because of its position or the position of its parts. Renewable Energy- Energy that comes from resources that are replenished by natural processes continually or in a relatively short time. Examples are solar energy (sunlight), wind, moving water, heat from the earth’s interior (geothermal energy), firewood from trees, tides, and waves. Nonrenewable Energy- Energy from resources that can be depleted and are not replenished by natural processes within a human time scale. Examples are energy produced by the burning of oil, coal, and natural gas, and nuclear energy released when the nuclei of heavy elements such as uranium are split apart (nuclear fission) or when the nuclei of light atoms such as hydrogen are forced together (nuclear fusion).

Fossil Fuels- Products of partial or complete decomposition of plants and animals; occurs as crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils as a result of exposure to heat and pressure in the earth’s crust over millions of years. Energy Quality- Ability of a form of energy to do useful work. High-temperature heat and the chemical energy in fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are concentrated high-quality energy.. Low-quality energy such as low-temperature heat is dispersed or diluted and cannot do much useful work. High-quality Energy- Energy that is concentrated and has great ability to perform useful work. Examples include high-temperature heat and the energy in electricity, coal, oil, gasoline, sunlight, and nuclei of uranium-235. Low-quality Energy- Energy that is dispersed and has little ability to do useful work. An example of this is low-temperature heat. First Law of Thermodynamics/Law of Conservation of Energy- Whenever energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed, but energy can be changed from one form to another; you cannot get more energy out of something than you put in; in terms of energy quantity, you cannot get something for nothing. This law does not apply to nuclear changes, in which large amounts of energy can be produced from small amounts of matter. Second Law of Thermodynamics- Whenever energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, we end up with lower-quality or less ...