Looking Back At The Human Biocultural And Social Evolution PDF

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Looking Back At The Human Biocultural And Social Evolution Biological And Cultural Evolution: From Australopithecus To Homo Sapiens Biological Evolution  It is the physical transformation of modern humans from hominids into thinking modern humans or homo sapiens. Cultural Evolution  It refers to the changes or development in cultures from a simple form to a more complex form of human culture.  Sociocultural evolution happens as a result of human adaptation to the different factors like changes in climates or in their environment and population increase. Charles Robert Darwin  He was a naturalist and biologist known for his theory of evolution and the process of natural selection.  He was the first scientist to publish a coherent theory of Evolution by Natural selection. Natural Selection According to Ember, Ember, and Peregrine: “It is the outcome of processes that affect the frequencies of traits in a particular environment. Traits that enhance survival and reproductive success increase in frequency over time.”

Three Principles of Natural Selection  Every species made up of variety of individuals wherein some are better adapted to their environments compared to others.  Organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits that can be inherited.  Organisms that have traits most suitable to their environment will survive and transfer these variations to their offspring in subsequent generations. From Hominids to Homo Sapiens The Biological And Cultural Evolution Of Modern Humans Artifacts And Fossils  Fossils refer to the human, plant, and animal remains that have been preserved through time.  Artifacts refer to objects that were made and used by humans. Hominid  It is the general term used by scientists to categorize the group of early humans and other humanlike creatures that can walk erect during the prehistoric times Four Categories of Hominid  Sahelanthropus  Ardipithecus  Australopithecus  Homo

Australopithecus, together with the Sahelanthropus and Ardipithecus are considered as the prehuman stage of evolution, while the Homo is part of the human stage of evolution. Sahelanthroupus tchadens Is The first hominid came from the lineage of the Sahelanthropus tchadensis species which is about 67 million years ago. Sahelanthroupus tchadensis Characteristics  Skull similar to Australopithecus and modern human.  Height almost similar to a chimpanzee.  Brain size of about 320-380 cubic centimeters.  Small Teeth  Had the ability to walk upright. Characteristics of Ardipithecus  Height of about 4 feet.  Weight of about 120 pounds.  Skull size similar to an ape.  Small brain.  Biped.  Lived in jungles and forests like the chimpanzees. Australopithecus

 Also called a southern ape.  It is the next group of hominids after Ardipithecus.  They lived in the African jungle from5 million to 1 million years ago. Characteristics of Australopithecus  Brain weight of 500 cubic cecntimeters.  Upright.  Biped.  Tool users only and not tool makers.  Used sticks and stones for digging.  Lived in small social groups.  Distance of movement was estimated to be 15 kilometers or more to search stones to be used as tools. Two Categories of Austalopithecus  Gracile Australopithecine had small teeth and jaw. Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, and Australopithecus africanus are included in this group.  Robust Australopithecus had large teeth and jaws and muscular built for Australopithecus boisei. Australopithecus aethiopicus, Australopithecus robustus, and the Australopithecus boisei are included in this group. "Lucy"  An old Australopithecus afarensis fossil which was considered as one

of modern human’s earliest ancestors and remains as the most famous hominid fossil discovered.  It was discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia in November 1974 by the paleoanthropologists named Dr. Donald Johanson. Homo  Homo are classified as humans and not humanlike creatures because they had bigger brains and were bipedal.  It first lived in Africa about 2.4 million years ago.  It includes Homo habilis(handy man), Homo erectus(upright man), and the Homo sapiens(wise man). Characteristics of Homo habilis

technologies to respond to their need.  Skillful Hunters.  The first Homo species to use fire and to live in caves and small houses made of tree branches.  The first to Homo to use spoken language.  They were also able to develop religious rituals particularly burial practices. Characteristics of Homo erectus  Brain size of 1000 cubic centimeters  Height of about five feet.  Walks upright. Eugene Dubos

 Brain size half the size of the modern human(700 cubic centimeters).

 A Dutch anatomist and geologist who excavated the first homo erectus fossil in Asia in the longgupo cave in China.

 Made tools called oldowan which were used as cutting tools and made from volcanic stones.

 The fossil was called the “Java man” and was dated to be 1.8 millions years of age.

 Used tools for hunting and food gathering.

 In 1920, another Homo erectus was excavated in a cave in Zhoukoudian China. This became known as “ Peking man” and was estimated to have lived about 1.1 million to 1 million years ago.

 Height of about 3 to 4 feet.

Homo erectus  It is believed to be more intelligent and more adaptable compared to the Homo habilis.  Homo erectus manifested cultural evolution, because they used their intelligence to invent and develop

Homo Sapiens  The last genus in the evolution ladder of the Homo family.  It is also known as thinking man.

 Archaic Homo sapiens of Africa, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo neanderthalensis, and the Homo sapiens are included in the species.  Their anatomy is very similar to the modern humans. Characteristice of Homo sapiens  Large brain size(1,400 cc) that is almost similar to the brain of modern humans.  Lived in shelters.  Food gatherers.  Ate plants and fruits.  Hunted animals.  Learned to gather and cook shellfish(164,000 years ago)  Used fire.  Crafted metals.  Homo sapiens made sophisticated and smoothened tools and had more developed shelters and advanced technology compared to the other Homo species.  They were able to make more complex tools and different stone tools like fishing tools(fish hooks), harpoons, bow and arrows, spear throwers, and sewing needles. Museums  These are institutions that are primarily tasked to conserve, communicate, and exhibit all

material and non material heritages of human society.  Museums are one of the most easily accessible places where we can see various artifacts, fossils, and other evidences that could give us information about our ancestors in the past. ASPECTS OF CULTURE

Culture is a people’s way of life. This classic definition appears generic, yet it prefigures both the processes and structures that account not only for the development of such a way of life, but also for the inherent systems that lend it its self-perpetuating nature. that complex whole, which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society” –E.B Taylor THE WHAT, HOW, AND WHY OF CULTURE One way of achieving this is by asking not only about the ‘what’ aspects of culture, but also the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of it. The Anatomy of Culture and Society Anthropology The what – refers to the content of culture The how- refers to the process that guarantee the transformation of the contents . Sociology The why-refers to the reason for compliance and the mechanisms that facilitate performance

Through socialization and enculturation individuals are exposed to and experience lessons in everyday interactions. The lessons are practical and address to their basic social needs. Language is shared Through conformity:  Actions of individuals are routinized and institutionalized in contexts like family, church, schools, and government. In time, they become part of their habits. Attitude-Communicated Through social control:  Conformity, or its absence thereof, is meted out through the system of giving rewards and imposing of punishments. ENCULTURED-THIRD CULTURE SHOCK DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE “ the handwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends”- B. Malinowski “an organized body of conventional understandings manifest in art which persisting through tradition, characterize a human group”-R. Redfield “the body of thought and knowledge, both theoretical and practical, which only man can possess” – V.de Robert CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE “A culture is a historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by all or specially designed members of a group” – Kluckhohn & Kelly

Explicit Culture Implicit Culture Characterization of culture revolves around the three essences of culture as a system: 

Super-organic

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Integrated

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Pervasive

1. Culture is social because it is the product of behavior. Culture does not exist in isolation. It is a product of society. It develops through social interaction. No man can acquire culture without association with others. 2. Culture varies from society to society. Every society has a culture of its own that differs from other societies. The culture of every society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform. Cultural elements like customs, traditions, morals, values, and beliefs, are not uniform. Culture varies from time to time as well. . Culture is shared. Culture is not something that an individual alone can possess. Culture, in a sociological sense, is shared. For example, customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, morals, etc. are all shared by people of a group or society. The patterns of learned behavior and the results of behavior are possessed not by one or a few persons, but usually by a large group. 4. Culture is learned.

Culture is not inborn. It is learned. Culture is often called “learned ways of behavior” 5. Culture is transmitted among members of society. The cultural ways are learned by persons from persons. Many of them are “handed down” by elders, parents, teachers, and others (of a somewhat older generation) while other cultural behaviors are “handed up” to elders. Culture is continuous and cumulative. Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical growth, it tends to become cumulative. Sociologist Linton called culture ‘the social heritage’ of a man. It becomes difficult for us to imagine what society would be like without culture. 7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic. Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs and desires. Our needs both biological and social are fulfilled in the cultural ways. Culture determines and guides various activities of man. Thus, culture is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their wants. Culture is embodies the ideas and norms of a group.

Symbolic Symbolic culture is the ability to learn and transmit behavioral traditions from one generation to the next by the invention of things that exist entirely in the symbolic realm. Functions of Culture Culture defines situations Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation. It reveals whether one should prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love.

Culture defines attitudes, values, and goals Each person learns from his/her culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes, values, and goals are defined by the culture. While the individual normally learns them as unconsciously as he learns the language. Culture defines myths, legends, and the supernatural Myths and legends are important parts of every culture. They may inspire or reinforce effort and sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Culture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the universe. The nature of divine power and the important moral issues are defined by the culture. Culture provides behavior patterns. The individual need not go through painful trial and error to know what food can be eaten or how to live among people without fear. People find a ready-made set of patterns awaiting them which they need only to learn and follow. ETHNOCENTRISM The word ethno comes from the Greeks and it refers to a people, nation, or cultural grouping. Centric, on the other hand, comes from Latin and refers to the “center”. The term ethnocentrism then refers to the tendency of each society to place its own culture patterns at the center of things. William Graham summer The description of ethnocentrism suggests that the very process of what makes culture enduring and durable also explains an equally recalcitrant attitude in the (non) appreciation of the cultures of other people. Individuals may be unable to and have difficulty in, showing appreciation of other cultures. Ethnocentrism is a universal human reaction found in all known societies, in all groups, and in

practically all individuals. Everyone learns ethnocentrism while growing up. The possessiveness of the small child quickly translates into “my toys are better than your toys”. Parents, unless they are quite crude, outwardly discourage their children from verbalizing such beliefs. But in private, they may reassure their offsprings that their possessions are indeed very nice. FUNCTIONS OF ETHNOCENTRISM The functions of ethnocentrism in maintaining order are more apparent than those which promote social change: 

First, ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of a group.

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Second, ethnocentrism hinders the understanding or the cooperation between groups.

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Third, conflict of course often leads to social change.

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When you judge the behavior and beliefs of people who are different from you.

Way out: To stop ethnocentric behavior, you must stop judging others who are different from you. 2. When you believe that there are primitive cultures, especially if their way of life is different from yours. Way out: Ethnocentrism is taught. You have to unlearn that your culture is superior and all other cultures are inferior. 3. When you believe that some cultures are backward if they lack the technology and consumerism of your own culture. Way out: Remember that there are no primitive or backward cultures. All cultures

provide their members with the means for meeting all human needs. CULTURAL RELATIVISM Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context and should be treated as such. A key component of cultural relativism is the concept that nobody , not even researchers comes from a neutral position. Cultural relativism is also a research method. Cultural relativism means that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural setting. The concept of cultural relativism foes not mean that all customs are equally valuable, nor does it imply that no customs are harmful. Appreciation of other cultures may come about for two complementary reasons: 1. Acquisition of sufficient knowledge about the culture in question 2. Direct exposure to other cultures. XENOCENTRISM AND XENOPHOBIA Xenocentrism is the prefers for the products, styles, or ideas of someone else culture rather than of one’s own. Xenophobia, on the other hand, is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or strange. Xenophobia can be seen in the relations and perceptions of an in-group toward an out-group. CULTURE AS HERITAGE Cultures have tangible (visible) and intangible (nonmaterial) components. The tangible ones are those that are produced and created based on specific and practical purposes and aesthetic values.

SOCIOCULTURAL AND POLITICAL EVOLUTION:

The Development of Societies From The Hunting and Gathering To The Agricultural, Industrial, and Post-Industrial Stages

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Extreme social inequality, typically more than modern societies such as our own.

Gerhard Lenski

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Agriculture raises men to a position of social dominance.

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Religion reinforces the power of elites.

An American Sociologist argued that human society undergoes transformation and evolution and in the process develops technological advancement. The more technology a society has, the faster it changes.” Hunting and Gathering Societies •

The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence.

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Making use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation for food.

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Depend on the family to do many things.

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Although women and men perform different tasks, most hunters and gatherers probably see the sexes as having about the same social importance.

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sexes as having about the same social importance.

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People come close to being socially equal.

Agricultural Societies and the Neolithic Revolution •

Human began to farm and domesticate animals.

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Animal domestication provided important contributions to the Neolithic people.

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The development of agriculture also led to an increase in social inequality.

Industrial Societies •

The production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery.

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Water power and then steam boilers to operate mills and factories filled with large machines.

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Weakening of close working relationships, strong family ties, and many of the traditional values, beliefs and customs.

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Change was so rapid that it sparked the birth of sociology itself.

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies •

Large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources

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Money as a common standard of exchange, and the old barter system was abandoned.

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies

Post-Industrial Societies •

The production of information using computer technology.

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The postindustrial society is at the heart of globalization.

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Less and less labor force

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Technology has improved life and brought the world's people closer but establishing peace, ensuring justice, and protecting the environment are problems that technology alone cannot solve.

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Formalized and complex form of religion

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Job specialization

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Development of Social classes

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Implementation of large-scale public works and infrastructures

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Sophisticated and detailed work of arts and architecture

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Advance technology

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System of writing and recording

Post-Industrial Societies characteristics •

Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service.

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A significant increase in the number of professional and technical employment and a decline in the number of skilled and semiskilled workers.

As a Political Leader of the Early Civilization Craft laws

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Education as the basis of social mobility.

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Human capital

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Application of “intellectual technology”.

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Focus on communication infrastructure

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Knowledge as source of invention and innovation.

Implement laws Impose justice and punishment Collect taxes Sometimes act as religious leaders as well Social and Political Systems

summerians Political Evolution and The Development of Early Civilization

Leader:

The Four Major Civilizations

Priest and Royalty

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Sume...