MCAT new notes bdashbfhjdahbdahbkljdhkjdnjcnkjdhkjndjunkjnjdscd PDF

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Do all of this before AAMC section banks Quick search= Control F

Organic chemistry notes ● Grignard reagent????? ● Lewis acid can be recognized easily because they always have a positive charge and/or an incomplete octet. ● Recall that the first motive for the chair conformation is to allow all sp3 hybridized ring carbons to have a tetrahedral geometry. ● The molecules of a perfect (ideal) gas take up zero volume, have least intermolecular interactions (weak bonds), Ideal gases obtain no volume unlike real gases which obtain small volumes, ideal gas particles excerpt no attractive forces, their collisions are elastic, The pressure of an ideal gas is much greater than that of a real gas since its particles lack the attractive forces which hold the particles back when they collide,

● The differences between ideal gases and real gases can be viewed most clearly when the pressure is high, the temperature is low, the gas particles are large, and when the gas particles excerpt strong attractive forces. Monoatomic gas molecules are much closer to ideal gases than other particles since their particles are so small.

● Thyroid hormone is in fact a peptide hormone in that it’s a modified form of amino acid, however is hydrophobic enough to cross the cell membrane, therefore behaves like both peptide and steroid hormone.

● Humor----fluid. ● A fluorophore (or fluorochrome, similarly to a chromophore) is a fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. Fluorophorestypically contain several combined aromatic groups, or planar or cyclic molecules with several π bonds.

● The amount of light can be emitted at different wavelengths, called the emission spectrum. ● Pka notes

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H3O+= -1.7 H2O= 15. H3N= 36 H4N+=9.4 NMR shift (3-5= halogens, 7=aromatics, 12-9= carboxylic, aldehyde, ect..) In general, molecules with stronger molecular forces are less volatile

NH3 is the lest likely to result in the fragmentation pattern characteristic of a strong acid reagent gas.

VSEPR Theory: Introduction https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nxebQZUVvTg Important links https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=hTflVoPLEmM&list=PL3O1g5skrP9pyHlYD0KFCfljmTt7uH9Hk https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=XK0MZk3Q4jk&list=PLJgMPwX2wmUwynBjAl06tI0k2lsiJMX7J https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2AFPfg0Como https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2AFPfg0Como N.B Brownted lorwy Acid donates protons, base accepts protons Thus, more protons (+) = more acidic Acidity increases as positive charge increases Stability of cations (+) decreases as electronegative increases Less electronegative=more stable=less energy (+) Lewis Acid accept electrons Base donates electrons Thus, more electronegative (-) = more acidic More electronegative= more stable= less energy ( anions, negative charge) In other words the more electronegative an element is, the more stable it is with a negative charge the more electronegative an element is, the less stable it is with a positive charge. That’s true for affective electronegativity for hydrocarbons. Sp3 < Sp2 < Sp 0------ energy consumes= endothermic= less stable The stronger the acid, the weaker the conjugate base. Good leaving groups are weak bases. And the weaker the conjugate base, the better the leaving group Thus, stronger the acid, the strongerer the leaving group More acidic= less basic=less nucleophilic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IOViLLuDMTs Nucleophiles strength http://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2012/06/18/what-makes-a-good-nucleophile/ E/Z configuration https://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/isomerism/ez.html NMR spectra Shielding---de-shielding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TELH53X20rw http://web.chem.ucla.edu/~harding/ec_tutorials/tutorial39.pdf NMR practice problems NMR shift (3-5= halogens, 7=aromatics, 12-9= carboxylic, aldehyde, ect..) http://www-usr.rider.edu/~grushow/nmr/NMR_tutor/selftests/problems_fs_start.html http://web.chem.ucla.edu/~harding/ec_tutorials/tutorial39.pdf Benzene splitting (NMR) https://forums.studentdoctor.net/threads/how-many-carbon-and-hydrogen-signals-in-a-methylpara-substituted-benzene-ring.1079522/ http://www-usr.rider.edu/~grushow/nmr/NMR_tutor/selftests/problems_fs_start.html Reactions with alcohol https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etznYI-fsoY hydride reducing agents https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pk0-yjOG-2o N.B Sodium borohydride reduces only aldehyde and ketone Aromaticity Benzene is relatively stable as alkanes or alkenes? More stable than alkenes? You are anti-aromatic if: Cyclic Planar Sp2 or has an unsharred pair of electrons Follows 4,8,12, 16, 20. A poly cyclic is aromatic as long as there is a benzene (aromatic that’s part of it). Being anti-aromatic is worse than being nonaromatic and being aromatic is better than being anti-aromatic in terms of being formed. Check aromatic ions Sn2 always proceeds with inversion of stereochemistry whereas Sn1 reaction can have both inversion and retention of stereochemistry. In Sn2 reaction nucleophile attack from behind whereas in Sn1 reaction nucleophile attack from the top and from the bottom? Racemic mixture = retention + inversion (S,R)--- Sn1

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Cell Potential https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqAfREfwt1Y https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9blB-uMTIAM 1 angstrom= 10-10 m Mole= the amount of substance Mass= the amount of matter in in object. Galvanic cell= voltaic cell---different that electrolytic cell.

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Cell potential must be zero or positive for galvanic cell---Spontaneous---no battery or energy input required. For electrolytic cell, it can be zero, positive or negative. Energy input or battery is required. Oxidation half reaction describes the species that loses electrons (increases in charge). For example, Cu → Cu2+ + 2eReduction half reaction describes the species that gains electrons (decreases in charge). For example, 2Ag+ + 2e- → 2Ag Reduction potential = potential of the reduction half reaction. Oxidation potential = potential of the oxidation half reaction = reverse the sign of the reduction potential. Cell potential = Reduction potential + Oxidation potential. Anode is always the place where oxidation happens. Cathode is always the place where reduction happens. Mnemonic: ○ An Ox = ANode OXidation ○ Red Cat = REDuction CAThode Anode shoots out electrons, Cathode takes in electrons. Electrons always flow from the Anode to the Cathode. Mnemonic: A to C or AC power. Naturally, the species with the highest oxidation potential (lowest reduction potential) will be the anode, and the species with the highest reduction potential will be the cathode. However, the electrolytic cell shows exactly the opposite----a battery is used to drive the reaction. The more positive the reduction potential, the easier it is to reduce the reactant. The more positive the oxidation potential, the easier it is to oxidize the product. reducing agent reduces something and get oxidized in the process. they are compounds with very positive oxidation potentials. oxidizing agent oxidize something and get reduced in the process. they have very positive reduction potential. Coefficient do not affect value.

limiting reactant problems https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZOVR8EMwRU Oxidation states ( oxidation number) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5E9Gvzs0qU Half life reaction (radiactive) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAsmY4ocWSA

rate laws

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irJ4ANrUXPI&t=998s What Is the Difference Between Molar Mass and Molecular Weight? https://sciencing.com/convert-atoms-grams-calculator-8451898.html

Biology notes ●

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In proteins the isoelectric point (pI) is defined as the pH at which a protein has no net charge. When the pH > pI, a protein has a net negative charge and when the pH < pI, a protein has a net positive charge. Phage-----virus that infects bacteria Auxotroph = mutant that cannot grow on minimal medium, requires certain supplement(s). saying a cell is methionine auxotrophic means that it would need to be on a medium containing methionine or else it would not be able to replicate. However, a prototroph or a methionine prototrophic cell would be able to function and replicate on a medium with or without methionine (-) means that the gene(s) involved for that particular pathway are dysfunctional. Arg- means that the genes involved in arginine synthesis are dysfunctional, so the cell can't make its own arginine. Lac- means that the genes involved in lactose metabolism are dysfunctional. Also a bacteria maybe be able to survive on minimal medium that has lactose as the only carbon source would be denoted Lac+. A bacterial strain that can’t grow with lactose of the only carbon source would be denoted Lac-. Bacteria must code for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to replicate its genome. Phages only infect bacteria and only undergo lytic and lysogenic cycles, not productive cycle. Viruses with an envelope (lipid bilayer coating) are restricted to infect animal cells, but outer membrane is not required. Typically, in a cell, abnormal proteins are targeted to proteasome in the cytosol for degradation or to the lysosomes for digestion. Enveloped viruses infect only animal cells, not bacteria Prions are resistant to degradation Gut bacteria are most likely obligate anaerobes. Like dissolves like= polar dissolves polar, and non-polar dissolves non-polar. However, compounds with, 5 C atoms (even if non-polar) and polar group are water soluble. Thin layer Chromatography---The absorbent acts as a polar stationary phase for the sample to interact with. The more polar solvent components of the mixture interact more with the polar stationary phase and travel at slower rate. The less polar components have greater affinity for the solvent than stationary phase and travel with the mobile phase solvent at a faster rate than the more polar components. N.B Rf value is always positive and never greater than 1.

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Atrophy is defined as a decrease in the size of a tissue or organ due to cellular shrinkage; the decrease in cell size is caused by the loss of organelles, cytoplasm and proteins. The leak channels (both Na and K) and the NA/K pump help establish the membrane potential----the voltage gated sodium channels help trigger depolarization and action potentials. The voltage gated sodium channels open in response to a change in the membrane potential. Generally, action potential is a wave of depolarization due to a disturbance in the membrane potential. First, depolarization must reach the threshold, changing the membrane potential from negative 70 to negative 50 then channels are fully opened further depolarize all the to positive 35 before inactivating it. A depolarization below the threshold will cause no response, while a depolarization greater than or equal to the threshold will cause all of the channels to open fully. This called all-or-none response. Glial cells maintain a resting membrane potential but do not generate an action potential---they are non-neuronal cells that provided structural and metabolic support to neurons. The membrane is not completely permeable and impermeable to K. Neuronal signaling is unidirectional because only the presynaptic cell has vesicle of neurotransmitter that are released in response to action potential, and only the postsynaptic neuron has receptors to bind the neurotransmitter to either depolarize or hyperpolarize the cell. Depolarization of about negative 50 mV is required to open sodium voltage gated channels to fire an action potential. The two types of effectors are muscles and glands. Sodium reabsorption is utmost importance to the function of the loop of Henle---it’s reabsorbed from the filtrate moving through nephron. A blood cell, also called a haematopoietic cell, hemocyte, or hematocyte, is a cell produced through hematopoiesis and found mainly in the blood. Major types of blood cells include; Red blood cells (erythrocytes) White blood cells (leukocytes) Platelets (thrombocytes) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_cell Two ATP are produced in per molecule of glucose in glycolysis and 3 ATP are extruded for each ATP molecule utilized by the sodium potassium pump. Antigens are foreign particles, usually proteins, which are capable of generating an immune response in the body, a property known as immunogenicity. This immune response consists of specific antibodies which are generated by plasma cells as a result of exposure to a specific epitope presented by the antigen. Leucocytes often gravitate toward inflammation. Hyperglycemia suggests insulin secretion whereas Glucagon secretion is suppressed by hyperglycemia.

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Water is lost through the skin primarily as a mean to keep the body at normal temperature. Lipase’s ability to catalyze the hydrolysis of fats and similar molecules reveals that some enzymes interact with several different substrate molecules that have similar linkages. Inflation of lungs in mammals is accomplished by negative pressure pumping action--the lung stays in contact with the thoracic wall as it enlarged due to contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, a pressure that lower than atmospheric pressure (negative pressure) is generated within the alveolar sacs. Genes are strands of DNA---the are strands of DNA that are not part of the cell’s chromosomes---these strands still must self-replicate just as the chromosomes do if they are to be passed from one generation to the next. N.B mRNA is found in the cytoplasm---DNAse degrades DNA A locus (plural loci) in genetics is a fixed position on a chromosome, like the position of a gene or a marker (genetic marker) Enzymes of glycolysis are found in the mitochondria Mitochondrial DNA encodes rRNA, tRNA and several proteins, including some components of the electron transport chain, has a unique genetic code and materials for that, also is second system of inheritance, supported by endosymbiotic theory. Mitochondria looks similar to gram negative bacteria Mitochondria exhibits maternal inheritance---inherited only form the mother—cytoplasm of the egg becomes cytoplasm of the zygote----the sperm contributes only to the genomic (nuclear) DNA. Most organelles like mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus are fluid-filled structures. On that account, fluid-filled organelles are membranous. All organelles in prokaryotes are non-membranous. Ribosomes, nucleoid, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and components of the cytoplasm like microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments are non-membranous organelles. Cis means near and trans means far.

Negative pressure Vs Positive Pressure (Lungs) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljI3uB5B-2A&t=691s  Negative Pressure---creating a vacuum (in intra-pleural space) for the lung to come down and expand. o When the lungs expand, the pressure within them decreases. The decreased pressure compared to the external environment causes air to rush into the respiratory tract. o Diaphragm moves down, vacuum, negative pressure is created (in intra-pleural space), lung comes down and get inflated (breath in). o Essentially, diaphragm contracts, moves down and pulls on parietal pleura, which creates a vacuum, negative pressure in intra-pleural space---the negative pressure pulls on visceral pleura covering the organ (lung), pulling down on the lung allow it to expand, hence breathing is possible. o The negative pressure is below atmospheric pressure, hence creating a pressure gradient to make all of this possible.  Positive pressure: When lungs are fully expanded and we’re ready for exhalation:

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Diaphragm now pulls up, in a relaxing manner (no contraction), thoracic cavity also recoil back (due to intrinsic elasticity), pushing on the lung, loss of lung volume and creating positive pressure----this pressure become higher than atmospheric pressure, creating pressure gradient, hence breathe out.

Exchange Across Capillaries https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SCOLFBXU21A https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bmQDAM-q2OM&t=13s

PV Loop-Cardiac cycle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ytg0J1IJ63k&t=302s

What is the difference between chromatography and electrophoresis? https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/undergraduate/preparing-for-university/stem/Biology/stemlegacy-electrophoresis.aspx http://www.marz-kreations.com/Chemistry/Chromatography/Dyes/RF-Values.html https://www.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/OrgLab/handouts/CHEM%20344%20TLC%20info.pdf

Punnett Square https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ExwLJZpd2s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LIXJmRurkKk

Sex-linked chromosome https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fQvER3MyI2c https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X7agCUbZEYM

pedigree analysis https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sy-1PXs_2_8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHqvmpXXlcE

How insulin and glucagon work to regulate blood sugar levels https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/316427.php https://www.diabetes.co.uk/body/liver-and-blood-glucose-levels.html

Mitosis vs Meiosis https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_IzfJSxa-uA

Physics notes Circuit ● The internal resistance of a voltmeter is very high. Therefore, adding a voltmeter will increase the resistance of the whole system. ● The voltage is the electromotive force that drives the current through the wire. It remains constant and unaffected by the increase in resistance

Inclined plane problems https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xOU25PWx8M https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5tXN3gNC3s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-I6fDXPObc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S54We3NRi9Y&t=215s pulley--Tension problems https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDwXQeWWbz0&t=317s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OAlb5F3NEE momentum collision problems https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ko3qy9vgLQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50xsXWDzUIg

Random Notes on missed questions In disease, hemolysis typically is associated with hemolytic anemia, whereby increased or accelerated hemolysis shortens the life span of red blood cells, causing them to die more quickly than they can be replenished by the bone marrow. Hemolytic anemia may involve either intravascular hemolysis, in which red blood cells are destroyed within the circulation, or extravascular hemolysis, in which the cells are destroyed in the liver or spleen. Phase diagram of water---------Normally the solid/liquid phase line slopes positively to the right. However for other substances, like water, there is an anomalous behavior and the line slopes to the left. This indicates that the liquid phase is more dense than the solid phase. This phenomenon is caused by the crystal structure of the solid phase. Upon freezing, the density of water decreases by about 9%. Because of that, you can melt ice simply by applying pressure and not by adding heat. Molecules of rRNA are synthesized in a specialized region of the cell nucleus called the nucleolus, which appears as a dense area within the nucleus and contains the genes that encode rRNA.

An isobaric process involves a process at constant pressure. An isothermal process is one that occurs at a constant temperature. An adiabatic process is one that occurs so quickly that no energy is lost as heat, cardiac muscle cannot function that quickly. Because volume is being held constant as pressure changes an isochoric process (also known as a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process) Isochoric Process (Constant Volume) An isochoric process is one in which the volume is held constant, meaning that the work done by the system will be zero. It follows that, for the simple system of two dimensions, any heat energy transferred to the system externally will be absorbed as internal energy.
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