Media Dependency Theory PDF

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Media Dependency Theory Media systems dependency theory, also called media dependency theory, was first introduced in 1974 by Ball-Rokeach in a series of papers titled “The Information Perspective.” This theory was officially introduced by DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach in 1976 with the basic premise that the media’s power is derived from the audience’s dependency on the media. That is, the more a person depends on having needs gratified by media use, the more important the media’s role will be in the person’s life and, therefore, the more influence those media will have (Baran & Davis, 2015). Media dependency theory not only examines the effects of mass media on audiences, but also examines interactions between the media, audiences, and social systems. The key idea behind this theory is that audiences depend on information from the media to meet needs and reach goals; and vice versa, society and the media create the needs and motives that audiences need (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976; Ball-Rokeach, 1988). That is, this theory examines the relationship in which the fulfillment of one’s needs is contingent upon the resources of the media. The more an individual depends on media to gratify a need or needs, the more important that media becomes in his or her life, and the more influence that media has over the individual. There is an internal link between media, audience and social systems. Because an audience is not able to learn everything from real life, they use media to get more information to fulfil needs and fill in the blanks. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1976) formulated this theory because they believed that past researchers and theories focused too much on the individual, and not enough on the link between the media, audience, and society. Media dependency theory has been deemed an extension of uses and gratifications theory (Ruggiero, 2000). This theory predicts that individuals depend on media information to meet

certain needs and achieve certain goals, like the uses and gratifications theory. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) state that “proponents of the uses and gratification approach examine how audiences use the media to gratify similar information needs but do so by taking the audience as the focal point of analysis, not the interrelationships between audience, media, and society” (p. 8). That is, both uses and gratifications and media dependency theory focus on an active audience member, but uses and gratifications research focuses on how the audience member is in charge of his or her media; whereas media dependency theory states that the audience member is not in charge or controlled by the media, but in a relationship between the three. Media dependency theory also sought to explain why media could have varying cognitive, affective and behavioral effects on different people. Cognitive effects are changes in an individual’s beliefs and values. These are more likely to change during a time of social change or conflict. There are four types of cognitive effects (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). First, the effect of forming and understanding ambiguity. The media cannot determine the interpretation of its content for each individual person. Therefore, by controlling the information and how it is presented they limit the range of interpretations. Second is attitude formation. This is when people form their attitude toward specific information being shared by the media. The third cognitive effect focuses on the media’s role in agenda-setting. Individuals do not have time to sort through all information and must instead select a limited set of topics to follow. In doing so, they open themselves to the process of agenda-setting in the topics where they cannot spend enough time finding information and instead rely on what the media present to them. The fourth cognitive effect is the media’s impact on values. Individuals’ beliefs and values change as they learn from the media.

Affective effects are defined as “the impact of media messages on an audience’s feelings and emotional responses.” (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976, p. 14). For example, an individual may develop feelings of fear and anxiety about living in a specific area because of negative news reports focused on that neighborhood. One point associated with affective effects is that of desensitization. Because individuals may be exposed to constant negative news stories highlighting violence and aggression, they may become numb, or desensitized, to these messages over time. Finally, behavioral effects are “changes in attitude, beliefs, and affective states” (BallRokeach & DeFleur, 1976, p. 16). Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur (1976) discuss activation and deactivation in relation to behavioral effects. Activation is when an individual does an action because of an exposure to media messages. For example, joining a club or activity because of a flier. De-activation is when an individual would have done that same action regardless of media messages. Assumptions and Central Tenets. Media dependency theory has four main assumptions. The first assumption is that the basis of media influence lies in the relationship between the larger social system, the media’s role in that system, and audience relationships to media (BallRokeach & DeFleur, 1976). Effects then occur because the media function according to the social system in order to give the audience what they want or need. The second assumption is “the degree of audience dependence on media information is the key variable in understanding when and why media messages alter audience beliers, feelings, or behavior” (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976, p. 3). The amount of media effect lies in how important the audience member deems a given media or a message to be. For example, if an individual relies on a lot of different types of media for news information, then the role of media importance and effects is small. If the individual relies on one type of media exclusively for news information, then the role of the

media is large. The third assumption is that “in our industrial society, we are becoming increasingly dependent on the media to understand the social world, to act meaningfully and effectively in society, and for fantasy and escape (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). Individuals come to know the world through the media and the media helps individuals define socially acceptable responses. There is an emphasis in this assumption about meaning-making, because individuals allow the media to shape expectations. The fourth assumption is that media is not used equally. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) stated that “the greater the need and consequently the stronger the dependency, the greater the ‘likelihood’ that the media and their messages will have an effect” (p. 6). It is necessary to recognize that not every individual is equally influenced by the media. Individuals who have greater needs will have the greater dependency on the media and the medium that is used most heavily depends on how many needs the medium meets and societal factors surrounding the medium. In line with the theory assumptions, one of the central tenets to media dependency theory is in defining dependency. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) define dependency as “a relationship in which the satisfaction of needs or the attainment of goals by one party is contingent upon the resources of another party” (p. 6). Dependency can differ in level of need depending on the individual, social stability, and the audience. An individual’s level of dependency depends on the level of satisfaction he or she receives from a specific medium. An example of a dependent relationship is when an individual checks the news or weather on his or her phone first thing in the morning to be informed or chooses to use a social networking site to feel a sense of connection with friends and family. An individual’s level of dependency is tied to two factors. One, how important the information that is delivered by the media is to the individual. And two, the degree of change and conflict in society (Baran & Davis, 2015). If the

degree of social change in society is high, individuals’’ feel that their beliefs are being challenged and thus reevaluate and make new choices; media dependency is high. However, if the degree is low and individuals feel more stable then media dependency is low. An audience’s level of dependency depends on how active audiences choose media based on needs, economic conditions, and accessibility. Key Research. The premise of Ball-Rokeach’s 1974 papers were that “media effects flow from the information resources of the media system that are implicated in the everyday life requirements of people (micro), groups or organizations (meso), and other social systems (macro) to act meaningfully in ambiguous or threatening social environments” (Ball-Rokeach, 2008). Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur, in their 1976 article, went on to formally state and describe media dependency theory as a theoretical alternative where instead of focusing solely on the individual they focused on the functions and relationship between the media, the audience, and society. That is, the relationships created between the media and its audiences. Ultimately, audience members who deem the media as an important factor in their lives are more likely to be affected by it. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) examined this audience dependency on media information through cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects. From here, Ball-Rokeach (1985) went on to further examine a framework for the analysis of macro and micro determinants of media system dependencies, previously addressed in his 1974 papers. The theory continued to evolve to examine the relationship between the media and audiences at a micro level and media and societal institutions at the macro level. At the micro level, this theory assumes that individuals are goal-oriented and active in their selection and usage of media content in three dependency areas: solitary and social play (learning roles, norms, and values through recreation), self-understanding and social understanding (i.e. learning about

oneself, knowing the world), and action and interaction orientation (i.e., deciding what to buy, getting advice on situations, etc.) (DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach, 1989). These areas are not mutually exclusive. More than one kind of area can be satisfied by the same medium (DeFleur & BallRokeach, 1989). At the macro level, the more people become dependent on media, “media institutions will be reshaped to serve these dependencies and the media’s role will become even more critical in society” (Baran & Davis, 2015, p. 282). The basic premise of this theory holds firm in that an individual who depends on media to meet a need will view the media as important, whereas an individual who seeks need gratification elsewhere will not view the media as important. Strengths and Weaknesses. Media dependency theory addresses four main questions about individuals, media, and society: Do media create needs?, do people turn to media to achieve gratifications and satisfy those needs?, are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or a mix of these?, and are the media and individuals friends? In examining these questions, it is necessary to examine the theory’s strengths and weaknesses. Strengths of media dependency theory include that is allows for system orientation, it integrates micro and macro levels of theory, and it is useful in explaining the role of media during a society change or a time of crisis (Baran & Davis, 2015). A time of crisis might also be a time of high ambiguity in society or in an individual’s life. The more a situation is unstable and ambiguous, the more media dependency. Although there is not one direct answer for why each person uses media, media dependency theory does give insight between the relationships of audience, media, and society. Weaknesses of media dependency theory include that it is difficult to verify empirically, when explaining media dependency the notions of meaning and power are unclear, and it lacks

power in explaining long-term effects (Baran & Davis, 2015). Although this theory examines media effects, measuring how individuals react to media, their dependency on media, and vice versa, how media bends to its audiences is not achievable. Also, with the continuous growth and advancement in new media technologies, long-term effects are extremely difficult to explain. Additional criticism of media dependency theory is the notion of if individuals can be dependent on media without experiencing dependency (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). That is, media dependency is related to many effects. It may be possible to experience dependency when an individual is actually independent. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur also do not define an ideal level of media dependency (Baran & Davis, 2012). Is society currently too dependent on media for information to satisfy needs? Researchers who focus on audience-use questions use uses and gratifications more than media dependency theory. Extended Theory Research. Media dependency theory examines how the more dependent an individual becomes on media to fulfill needs, the more important that media becomes to that individual. It also explores the long term effects and relationship between mass media, the audience, and the social system overall. The research on this theory has been extended as it focuses on media use during a crisis. People in modern society rely heavily on media to understand the world around them (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). In a crisis, the mass media are generally perceived to best satisfy needs, as they offer speed of transmission and structural connectedness to “expert” sources of information (Lowrey, 2004, p. 339). In times of social change, conflict, or crisis, individuals turn to the media to get more information. In examining the terrorist attacks on September 11, a time of crisis became a time of research. Lowrey (2004) found that the degree of a perceived threat and an individual’s age are key predictors in media dependency during a crisis. Lowrey (2004) also found that the degree of dependency is a

predictor of attiude and behavior change, but socioeconomic status, degree of social capital, and connectedness are not significant. Media dependency theory has also be used to examine corporation reputation (Einwiller, Carroll, & Korn, 2010; Zheng, Liu, & Davison, 2018), health crises including the SARS epidemic of 2003 (Tai & Sun, 2007) and the 2015 Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak in South Korea (Jang & Baek, 2018), and in political-campaign communication (Miller & Reese, 1982; Chen & Chang, 2017). Einwiller, Carroll, & Korn (2010) found that stakeholders in corporations actually rely more on the news media to learn about the corporation’s reputation and perception in society. The stakeholders find that this is a better way to directly experience and observe reputation aspects. Zheng, Liu, and Davison (2018) examined corporate reuptuation in regards to using social media as a secondary form of communciation during a crisis. The findings included that a corporation’s reputation can lead individuals to feel morally violated online in their perceptions of the corporation and lead them to engage in secondary socia media communication. Tai and Sun (2007) examined the SARS epidemic because they wanted to exmaine a situation when ifnormation was highly controlled and not as easily accessible through media. They found that the Internet was the most powerful too during this time as it let individuals find information in an altnerate manner, bypass official statements, and challenge information given by the media. Jang and Baek (2018) examined the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak in South Korea and found that less credible information from public health officials led to more use of online news, interpersonal networks, and social media for finding information. Media dependency theory has also been used to examine political-campaign communtiion, examining the relationships between the media, the voters, and political candidates. Miller and Reese (1982) found that voters who rely heavily on a medium,

newspapers and television news specifically, for political information show a positive association between that medium and poltical efficacy and activity. Chen and Chang (2017) expanded media dependency and political commnication by examining social media platforms, specifically Facebook, in regards to voters looking for political information for Taiwan elections. They found that voters preferred information that came from political blogs, instead of Facebook, suggesting that “information-oriented blogs are preferred to socialization-oriented Facebook in a political context” (p. 817). New Media Environment Research. Although the media has changed drastically since DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach originated this theory, the basic premise is tangible across new media as well. As digital media continues to be an integral part of daily life, Ball-Rokeach (1988) anticipated the impact of the Internet on media dependency by stating that the Internet interrupts traditional relations as it is integrated into all aspects of an individual’s life. Additional research on media dependency theory in relation to the Internet includes research on the digital divide and storytelling (Jung, Qui, & Kim, 2001), online consumerism (Patwardhan & Yang, 2003), Internet value (Riffe, Lacy, and Varouhakis, 2008), the Internet in relation to information literacy and quality of life (Leung, 2010), and Internet usage during a crisis (Lyu, 2012). Jung, Qiu, and Kim (2001) examined the notion of the digital divide in relation to the Internet. They found that online communication infrastructure is basically another storytelling system with different levels of actors, macro (media), meso (society), and micro (individuals and their interpersonal networks), similar to media dependency theory. The Internet is then part of a much larger system that is constantly changed and adapted by the levels of actors and the relationships between them. Patwardhan and Yang (2003) introduced the Internet Dependency Relations (DR) which is a predictor of online consumer activities based on the media dependency theory and examines

three goal dimensions: shopping with orientation, news reading with understanding, and chatting with play. They found that IDR significantly explained an Internet user’s online shopping (orientation) and online news (understanding) reading, but not online chatting (play). Riffe, Lacy, and Varouhakis (2008) found that respondents valued the Internet more than magazines, books, or friends and families as sources of information. Leung (2010) examined the relationships between Internet connectedness, information literacy, and quality of life using Jung et al.’s (2001) Internet Connectedness Index (ICI) based on media dependency theory. Leung found no relationship between Internet connectedness and quality of life, but strong relationships between Internet connectedness and information literacy and quality of life and information literacy. Showing a shared dependency on information literacy. Lyu (2012) examined how Chinese college students used the Internet during a public health crisis and found that an individual’s degree of media dependency is a predictor of attitude and behavior during a crisis. Interestingly, the findings here contradict findings from Western democratic countries, emphasizing how society can change relationships between media and audience. Aside from the Internet, additional new media technologies have been utilized in research. Stafford, Belton, and Nelson (2010) stated that the “interactive perspective of media dependence is particularly useful in the world of technology, where users are regularly and directly engaged with multimedia communication devices” (p. 3). This is because dependence comes from a combination of reliance on information and frequency of use. Two areas in new media research examine this combination necessary for dependence: mobile and smart phone technology (Chen, 2007; Chen & Katz, 2009) and social media networks (Lee, 2011; Ha, Koon, & Zhang, 2013; Kim & Jung, 2016). Chen (2007) proposed that the process of identity deve...