MEJO 379 Cheat Sheet Final Exam 2020 PDF

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Cheat sheet for the final exam of MEJO 379...

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Green=Finished Sectionf Feel free to help out others if you see things haven’t been finished! And if you have questions about stuff you’re filling out you can highlight it L2. Review of Research Methods (Maura) ● Applied vs. basic/theoretical research - Applied : Conducted to solve actual “real world” problem (practical) (conducted over shooter time period) - Theoretical : gather knowledge about a phenomenon or idea (theoretical in nature) (longer time period) ● Principles of social science/communication research - Social Science: Empirical (Observation and measurement), Systematic, Intersubjective and replicable, cyclical and self correcting - Not about pure reasoning - Involve deliberate planning and procedures ● Scientific Method/Steps in Research Plan - Scientific Method: 1. Make an observation. 2. Ask a question. 3. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation. 4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis. 5. Test the prediction. 6. Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions - Steps In Research Plan 1. Observe and Ask 2. Review Existing Research 3. Construct Hypothesis and Research questions 4. Consider whether hypothesis captures the essence of the question and if you've overlooked important variables 5. Choose appropriate method/tool/design 6. Use method to collect data 7. Analyze and interpret data 8. Reflect : Any new questions arise from your process? ● The role of theory in communication research - Use of theory: to explain or predict key outcomes - Theory is not always correct. Always correct = law ● Inductive and deductive reasoning. Statistical syllogism. - Inductive: General conclusion based on individual observations (inductive reasoning may be false simply because the observations you made may not be universal)

Deductive : From general observation /theories to specific questions/hypothesis (example, if we assume that all advertising is paid for, and we see or hear some advertising, we can safely deduce that the advertis-ing we see or hear is paid for) - Statistical Syllogism: Going from a generalization to a conclusion. Forming a conclusion about something based off a generalization you know - Also Goes from major premise to minor premise to conclusion Subject/respondent in research. Universe vs. population vs. sample. - Subject: Person, object, process or practice that is being observed during the research. Also called respondent - Universe: all research subjects that fit the topic - Population: Subjects that we can study - Sample: Small portion of the population that you use in the study Definition, levels/attributes of variables, different types of variables. - Definition of Variable: A quantity that takes more than one value (her video). Also defined as anything that varies - Leveles/Attributes: A specific value on a variable (Example: Gender Variable, Two attributes Female and Male. Student Grade Vraibel, Two attributes Pass or Fail) - Types of Variables: Independent Variable (taken as given, determine the Dependent, changes on its own), Dependent Variable (caused or depends on the IV or other Variables), Intervening Variable: operate between the IV and DV, Explain the relations of why IV cause DVs (usually an DV that becomes a new IV), affects the relationship between the IV and DV, could be a confounding variable - Ex. Hypothesis: Increased exposure to social media advertisements causes higher purchase intentions. - IV: Exposure to social media - Attribute/level: increased exposure - DV: Purchase intentions - Intervening: Gender and other demographics Understand the difference between research questions vs. hypotheses - A hypothesis is an explanation or expectation of an event. Your prediction of what your research will yield - A research question are the question that the researcher wants to answer most through his research while the hypothesis is his prediction of what will occur Hypotheses should be testable and falsifiable. Research vs null hypotheses. - Research Hypotheses is a normal hypothesis that comes true or that you predicied - A null hypothesis is any other outcome than what you predicted -

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● Conceptualization vs. operationalization. - Operationalization: the process whereby a researcher defines how she will measure a variable - Conceptualization: involves defining what an abstract concept means, ● Concept, construct, and indicators. How to operationalize concepts. - Concept: General term used to express abstract idea - Construct: a specific type of Concept with measurable dimensions - Indicators: shows the presences of absences of concept ● Validity, internal validity, and external validity, and projectability. - Validity: when the scales measure what they are supposed to measure - Internal Validity: Internal validity applies to the study itself. Did this particular research project or study really find out what it said it was going to find out? If it did not, there is a problem of internal validity, meaning a problem within the study itself. - External Validity: External validity is the validity of generalized statements based on limited research studies, or implying that one variable caused another to vary when such conclusions are unwarranted. These problems often arise when studies in a controlled research laboratory situation cannot be replicated outside the lab. - If you cannot generalize your results to a broader context your results have limited external validity - Projectability: If the results of the internal study cannot be projected to a larger external population, then there are problems of projectability, that is applying the situation to a larger group. - Sample vs. Population ● Reliability & replication. - Reliability: the degree of consistency in measuring survey responses, provided that there are no changes in the characteristic being measured. For example, when you step on the bathroom scale to measure your weight, you expect the scale to provide the same reading if you step on, step off, and then step on again. - Replication: Can the study results be replicated over and over L4. Research processes & ethics (Maura) ● Primary vs. secondary research. - Primary research: the collection of data that does not already exist. Research you do yourself - Secondary research: the summary, collation, and/or synthesis of existing data. Uses existing information to answer the RQ

● The difference between qualitative and quantitative research methods, in terms of data collection, evaluation, functions, exemplary methods, and the kinds of research questions that can be addressed by each method. - Qualitative data gives insight and details while quantitative is numerical and logical. It also provides generalization - handling qualitative data involves organizing all of those raw collections of information. Sorting various responses into similar categories may be an appropriate step in handling qualitative data, but if the findings are categorized, counted, and statistically analyzed, it becomes an exercise in quantitative research rather than a qualitative study. Qualitative researchers often quote entire sentences or even longer responses from individual respondents, using the subjects’ own words to explain and expand on a topic. Several like responses can be grouped and passages quoted from several respondents to show a pattern or prevalent feeling. - More subjective and is based on the researcher’s own experience -

Quantitative: Describes, understands, predicts and controls - Knowing the independent variable helps to predict the outcome and allows you to control

● Mixed-method study and its advantage (triangulation). - By using both qualitative and quantitative complement each other by providing depth with generalization, thoughts with numbers, giving statistic while also providing deeper consumer insight ● Characteristics of secondary research. - Published, not original - Can be gathered from various sources - Large and credible sources ● Advantages and disadvantages of secondary research. - ADVANTAGE: Inexpensive, saves time, multiple studies, trusted sources, large studies - DISADVANTAGE: Not specific to topic, conflicting viewpoints, limited knowledge of research methodology and collection, lack of depth ● Types of secondary research. - Syndicated research - a research company licenses the use of the information to multiple parties. - Published research- papers and articles in trade publications or consumer publications, however, are free to be repurposed for other analysis. - Government Census - The U.S. Census is a key source for demographics in the country.

● Research ethics ○ Informed consent (voluntary participation and no harm to subjects) ○ Protection of identity (anonymous and confidential) ○ Three ethical principles in Belmont report. ■ Respect of persons ■ Beneficence ■ Justice L5. Social Media Analysis (Maura) ● Why we use social media analysis. - Understand consumers purchase behaviors and brand perceptions - Study media habits and patterns - See trending themes - Listen to what people say about their client - Gain more insight in a quicker way from consumers ● Know under what circumstance and how Meltwater and Simmons can be used for secondary research. - your secondary research/literature review focuses on a specific client - you want to investigate a client’s digital communication activities and how people talk about it online. - you need real-time data. - Pros of Meltwater - Real-time data. - Comprehensive social media data. - Many widgets for different kinds of analytics. - Pros of Simmons - Attitude, behavior, media data. - Crosstabs can be used for revealing unique patterns. L7. Content Analysis (Katherine) ● Why content analysis. Know the kind of research topics best addressed by content analysis. ○ Best used for: ■ Analyzing texts and visuals ○ Why content analysis? ■ Many AD&PR research questions are inherently associated with texts. ■ Subjects memorize limited details of messages. ■ Subjects display biased memory. ■ Unobtrusive: results of natural communication. ● Understand the definition of (quantitative) content analysis.

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○ Prepare the text, code information into categories, then conduct statistical analysis. ○ Quantitative content analysis: ■ Content analysis is organized under the heading of qualitative research in the book, but in actuality, strives to be quantitative ■ In practice, content analysis is a combo- both quantitative and qualitative research ■ Examples: ■ Number of advertisements in various magazines ■ Frequency of keywords ■ Number of pop ups ■ Etc Understand the advantages and disadvantages of content analysis. ○ Advantage: A good way to describe messages objectively and reliably. Know what it means by unit of analysis. Can judge the unit of analysis given an example. ○ The unit of analysis is the major entity that you are analyzing in your study Meaning and examples for manifest and latent content/variables. ○ A manifest variable is a variable or factor that can be directly measured or observed. It is the opposite of a latent variable, which is a factor that cannot be directly observed, and which needs a manifest variable assigned to it as an indicator to test whether it is present Procedures of content analysis ○ How to create a codebook ■ Operalization: Explain all variables and their coding rules ● Clearly specify categories for the variables ● Define categories and coding rules with maximum amount of detail ○ Ex: Media type: 1. print, 2. tv, 3. Internet (too simple), what about Wall Street Journal article online? ○ Principles of categorization (exhaustiveness and mutually exclusiveness) to evaluate the given categories of a variable. ■ The categories should reflect the purpose of the research ● Ex: Purpose=Sexualization in media: Categories=Facial expression, body curve, color of dress, etc. ■ Categories should be exhaustive (list all possible options) ■ Categories should be mutually exclusive (one option should only be placed in one category) ■ Add an option called others, specify examples to make sure things are mutually exclusive

Know what it means by coding in content analysis. ■ Content analysis occurs when coders code articles ■ Coding means you identify/place messages in your category system based on your codebook ● How to ensure the validity and reliability of coding in content analysis. ○ Validity: Whether your codebook is accurately measuring what you want to be measured ■ Issue with operalization: (informal tone for example) is it accurate, reasonable, useful? If so, validity is more likely ■ Categorization: Is it closely tied to your research question? ■ Sampling: Do you have a relevant and representative sample? ○ Reliability: ■ Train your coders so they understand the codebook ■ Conduct pilot study and “test” the codebook and coding sheet ■ Check intercoder reliability (ICR)- quantifies how reliable the coder’s results are ● Satisfactory coder reliability ○ 90% for manifest content ○ 70% for latent content ● Measures of ICR: Scott’s Pi, Cohen’s Kappa, Krippendorf’s Alpha ● Calculation of ICR: ○

L9. Intro to Qualitative Research (Katherine) ● More about the difference between qualitative vs. quantitative research, in terms of purpose and use. ○ Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analyzing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth. ○ Quantitative: Systematic; breadth (wide range); generalizable to larger population; many subjects ○ Qualitative: Detail (depth) with fewer participants; can only generalize within sample studied ○ Qualitative research is used for: • background information when little is known. • problem formulation or development of research hypotheses. • understanding consumers’ feelings, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors in depth. • pretesting questionnaire or refining design. • listening to consumers express ideas in their own words ● The characteristics of qualitative research. ○ Done to gain an understanding of underlying reasons andMotivations ○ Usually uses small samples ○ Follows flexible questioning approach ○ Unstructured ○ Not-representative; not generalizable ○ Nonstatistical ○ Examples include focus groups, in-depth interviews, field observations, and case studies ● Validity and reliability in qualitative research. ○ Different from validity and reliability in quantitative due to the influence of the researcher as the “instrument” ■ Think about the trustworthiness of the data instead of using words like reliability and validity ■ Use multiple methods. ■ Write memos to yourself before and during the process. ■ Member checks. ■ Work as a team: have a set of procedures. ■ Debriefing to the participants. ● Know four different kinds of qualitative methods. ○ Narrative: rely on spoken or written words of individuals, focus on lives as told through stories

○ Phenomenology: study of an individual’s lived experiences within the world, commonality of an experience goal is to arrive at a description and nature of the particular phenomenon ○ Grounded Theory: systematic constructruction of abstract conceptual theories that can explain the studied empirical phenomena ○ Ethnography: gathers observations, interviews and documentary data to produce detailed and comprehensive accounts of different social phenomena. ○ Case Study: in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. ○ In-depth interviews ○ Focus groups ● Can choose the appropriate qualitative methods for given research questions. ● Ethnographic research o Characteristics ● Subjects are researched in a natural setting, rather than a laboratory ● The research demands close, face to face interaction within the researcher and the participants. ● Produces an accurate reflection of perspectives and behaviours ● Ethnography consists of inductive, interactive and repeated collection of unstructured data and analysis to build local cultural theories. ● Data are mostly collected from fieldwork experiences ● It uses multiple methods of data collection like interview, observation, reviewing artefacts and visual materials ● The research frames all human behaviour and belief within a socio-political and historical context. ● Culture is used as a lens to interpret results ● Emphasizes on exploration of the nature of particular social phenomena. ● It investigates a small amount of cases, usually one case but in detail. o Four possible roles of a researcher. ● Complete participant: The complete participant interacts with people in situations in which it is possible to take a day to day role, but where their true identity and purpose are not known to those observed ● Participant as observer: The participant as observer role has similarities, but differs in that both researcher and informant are aware that there is a research relationship. ● Observer as participant: The observer as participant role involves more formal observation ● Complete observer: the complete observer role removes the researcher from social interaction with those observed (which can include complete removal, such as through one way mirrors)

o How involved should you be. ● Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with a study's participants in their real-life environment. ● we can be outside (observer, Etic): ○ complete observer: group being observed does not know of researcher’s presence, does not take part ○ observer as participant: researcher separated from interactions of those observed ● we can be inside (participant, Emic) ○ complete participant: participates fully, observes covertly ○ participant as observer (participant observation): active participation during the observation ● How involved should you be? ○ depends on the goal of research projects (is the research private? can you participate?) ○ is it safe? (gangsters) ○ familiarity with the group you are studying ○ accessibility of the group ○ willingness of group to allow you to participate ○ your level of comfort in the setting o What is a fieldnote. ● Qualitative notes recorded by scientists or researchers in the course of field research, during or after their observation of a specific phenomenon they are studying o Steps conducting ethnographic research. ● 1. Define problem/phenomena to be studied. ● Goal: to understand the world through participants’ eyes. ● 2. Gain data access. Where will you collect research data? Decide your involvement. ● 3. Conduct research. Write up notes. Log a journal/diary. ● 4. Write up findings. Develop report. L11. Focus groups (Katherine) ● Characteristics of focus groups. ○ Group interview with a moderator (lead interviewer) ○ Involve people (participants) ○ Participants have certain characteristics that are important in their selection ○ Yield qualitative data (not generalizable to a larger population) ○ Have a “focused” discussion ● Advantages of focus groups.

○ Relatively cost-effective ○ Can be conducted in a short period of time. ○ Good to collect preliminary data (may be used as pilot studies) ○ Mimics social context, captures social negotiation of information ○ Can allow for flexibility in question design, ○ conversation, and follow-up. ○ Group responses can be “more complete and less inhibited” ● Disadvantages of focus groups ○ Participants talk too much/little ○ Not generalizable. Cannot answer “how many” or “how much.” ○ Ineffective moderator who cannot relate to participants. ○ Participants not representative of population. ○ Context introduces unique bias to data ● How to choose the right participants. Know what saturation means. ○ Typical/Representative of Intended Audience ○ Divide groups in ways that may make them more comfortable discussing a particular topic ○ E.g., age, gender, level of education, product use ○ Works best in groups of 6-9 participants (or mini focus groups of 4-5). ○ Saturation was defined as the point at which linking concepts of two consecutive focus groups revealed no additional second-level categories ● Steps in conducting focus...