ML Exam Ch7-12 - Summary Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Applications PDF

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Chapter 7: Performance and Motor Control Characteristics Manual aiming skills: motor skills that involve arm, hand, &/or finger movement to target. Ex: key in keyhole, threading a needle with thread, typing, throwing darts at a target, grasping containers of different sizes, playing a piano, moving pegs Speed-accuracy trade – off: as speed increases, accuracy decreases and vice versa. Ex: soccer kicks Fitts' Law: human performance law specifying the movement time for an aiming movement time for an aiming movement when the distance to move and the target size are known. MT = a + b log2(2D/W) Index of difficulty (ID): quantitative measure of the difficulty of performing a skill involving both speed and accuracy requirements. Log2(2D/W). D is distance from starting point to target. W is target width Open-loop control: initial movement's speed, direction and accuracy are under CNS control. Closed-loop control: visual feedback ensures accurate results. Visual information in the speed-accuracy trade-off Preparation phase: ex: Movements: grasp key in hand in orientation similar to keyhole Vision involvement: assesses regulatory conditions to determine specific movements (keyhole location, size, spatial orientation, distance) Initial flight phase: Movements: initial limb movement Vision involvement: monitor limb displacement and velocity Termination phase: Movements: temporal and spatial corrections to insert key Vision involvements: focus on movement corrections Prehension: general term for grasping and reaching for objects that may be moving or stationary. Three distinct movements: transport, grasp, and object manipulation  

The role of vison: exception is object manipulation. Prehension and Fitts' law: the characteristics of an object (e.g., cup) will impact kinematics

Handwriting: what people write and how they write it.

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Motor equivalence w/ vision: control system to enable a person to achieve and action goal in variety of situations and conditions (writing signature with either hand) W/ vision: control the overall spatial arrangement of words on a horizontal line, and produce accurate handwriting patterns

Bimanual Coordination Skills:  

Symmetric bimanual coordination: two limbs produce same movement (e.g., row a boat, wheelchair) Asymmetric bimanual coordination: limbs produce different movements (e.g., guitar, drummer, tennis, holding a jar) o Harder task to do

Catching a moving object: 

Three phases of catching an object o Spatially and temporally set the arms, hands, and fingers before the ball arrives so person can catch the ball. o Vision is needed in initial phase and end phase.

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Tau and catching: angle of the moving object with eyes Vision of the hands and catching: more experienced people use less vision

Striking a moving object: 

W/ vision: college tracks ball longer to plate (9ft) compared to pro (5.5ft)

Locomotion: general agreement that a nervous system level, central pattern generators (CPG's) in spinal cord are involved in control of human locomotion.   

Parkinson's patients show opposite pelvis and thorax phase relationships ACL reconstructed people show differs compared to normal knee. Goal is to maintain head stability. o Optimized the use of vison in actions

Spontaneous gait transitions. Ch. 8 Action Preparation: Action Preparation Requires Time. Task and Situation Characteristics Influencing Preparation:   

Action Preparation: activity that occurs between the intention to perform an action and initiation of that action. Motor programming is used to describe the prep activity Number of Response choices: as the number of alternatives increases, time requires to prepare movement increases. Hick's Law: RT will increase log as the number of stimulus response choices increases o RT = k[log2 (N+1) o k is the constant N is number of choices

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RT decreases as the predictability of one of the possible choices increases Probability of Precue Correctness: o Cost-benefit trade off: Cost (slower RT) Benefit (faster RT), biasing the preparation of an action in favor of one of several possible actions

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Stimulus – Response Compatibility (S-R): RT will be faster as the relationship between the stimulus characteristics and their required response becomes more compatible. o RT increases are due to response selection problems o Stroop effect: type of stimulus-response compatibility situation in which a color's name and ink are the same or different

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Foreperiod length Regularity: interval between the warning signal and go signal. o Anticipation of performer

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Movement Complexity: influences the amount of time a person requires to prepare the motor control system. Movement Accuracy: accuracy demands for a movement increase; the amount of prep time also increases. Repetition of a Movement: RT decreases as repetitions increases. The time between different responses to different signals: o RT will be slower for the defensive player's second movement than his first (basketball)

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Psychological refractory period (PRP): delay period during which a person seems to put planned action on hold while executing a previously initiated action.

Performer Characteristics influencing preparation:   

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Alertness of the performer: RT is quicker than when a warning signal precedes the signal to respond that when there is no warning signal. Optimal foreperiod length should be between 1 and 4 sec. Vigilance: long term maintenance of alertness. o Problem: signals occur infrequently and irregular o Ex: baseball out fields and lifeguards Attention focused on the signal versus the movement: signal (sensory set) with movement required (motor set). Swimmers and sprinters need to move as fast as they can when the signal to move hits.

What occurs during preparation: 

Evidence from fractioning RT: o Premotor component (sometimes referred to as electromechanical delay) EMG signal does not change much. RT increases when there is an increase is response complexity. o Motor component: increased EMG activity.

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Postural Preparation: anticipatory postural adjustments o Affects leg movements

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Prep of limb movement characteristics:

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Prepare directions for limbs to move then trajectory the arm will follow during movement

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Preparation of movements for object control: Force control: ex: weight lifting, hand writing End- state comfort control: manipulating objects in your hands to whatever is most comfortable. Preparation of Sequences of Movements: o Ex: piano, keyboards

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Rhythmicity Preparation: ex: dance, free throws, rituals Ch. 9 Attention as a Limited Capacity Resources

Attention: characteristics associated with consciousness, awareness, and cognitive effort as they relate to the performance of skills. 

Environmental info, detection, and identification --> Selection of response --> prep of response --> response.

Attention and multiple task performance: decreases with more task Attention Theories: 

Filter theory, (bottleneck theory): it's hard to do several things at once because the human infoprocessing system performs in a serial order. o Resource limit exists

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Central- Resources Capacity theories: attention capacity theories that propose one central source of attention resources for which all activities requiring attention complete. Kahneman's attention theory: views attention as cognitive effort. o Has flexible capacity o Available attention: pool of effort o Arousal: general state of excitability of a person, reflected in activation levels of persons emotional, mental, physiological systems. o Three rules: 1st ensure completion of activity, 2nd enduring dispositions, distractions, meaningfulness, 3rd momentary intentions: allocate attention according to instructions

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Multiple Resource theories: theories of attention proposing that there are several attention resource mechanisms, each of which is related to a specific info processing activity and is limited in how much info can process simultaneously.

Dual Task Procedure for Assessing Attention Demands:   

Investigate attention-limit issues determine the amount of attention required or part of an action Primary task: task of interest Secondary interest: basis researchers use to make inferences about the attention demands

Focusing Attention: directing of attention to specific characteristics in a performance environment or to action-preparation activities.

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Width: out attention being broad or narrow focus on environmental info and mental activities Direction: out attention focus can be external or internal Four types of attention-focus situations: o Attention switching:  Broad/narrow to walk through crowded hall  Narrow/external to catch a ball

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Focusing Attention on movements vs movement effects: o Action effect Hypothesis: actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects. o Common coding: predicts that actions will be more effective when they are planned in terms of the movement patterns by the skill. o Constrained action hypothesis: the internal focus constrains the motor system because the performer consciously attempts to control it. o Skill- focused attention: directed to any aspect of the movement o Environmental focused attention: directed away from the execution of the skill o Deatomatization-of-skills: choking under pressure

Attention and Automaticity: indicate that a person performs a skill, or engages in certain information processing activities, w/ little or no demands on attention capacity a. b. c. d. e.

Visual search of environment Use of tau Storing info in memory Selection of an action to perform and the movement characteristics Actual production of an action

Visual selective attention:  

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Known as cues Selective attention: study of attention as it relates to human learning and performance, the term used to refer to the detection and selection of performance-related info in the performance environment Visual search: the process of directing visual attention to locate relevant info in the environment that will enable a person to determine how to prepare and perform a skill in a specific situation Eye movement and visual selective attention: o Not possible to make an eye movement without shifting attention How We Select Visual Cues: detection of conditions

Visual Search and Motor Skill Performance: action selection, constraining of the selected action, and timing of action initiation.     

Returning a badminton serve Returning a tennis serve (the 3 phases) Baseball batting Soccer actions Shooting a basketball

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Driving a car Prehension while walking Locomotion through a cluttered environment Visual search in closed motor skills: o Basketball free throw o Putting a golf ball

Training Visual Search Strategies Ch. 10 Memory Components, forgetting, and Stategies: Memory Structure:  

A two-component memory model: Working memory: "right now" situations o Associated with sensory, perceptual, attentional, and short-term memory processes. o Plays a role in decision making, problem solving, movement production, evaluation, and long-term memory function. o Interactive workspace o Phonological loop: short-term storage of verbal information o Visuospatial sketchpad: stored for short periods of time. o Central executive: coordinates working memory retrieved from long term memory. o Duration: the amount of time info will remain in working memory o Capacity: the amount of info that will reside in working memory (organization)

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Long-term memory: a component system in the structure of memory that serves as a relatively permanent storage repository for info. o Procedural Memory: how to do something o Semantic Memory: general knowledge about something. o Episodic Memory: "mentally travel back in time"

Distinguishing b/w Knowing What to do and doing it:  

Declarative Knowledge: knowledge about what to do in a situation; verbalizable Procedural knowledge: enables the person to actually perform a skill

Remembering and Forgetting:    

Encoding: transformation of information to be remembered into a form that can be stored in memory Storage: process of placing information in long-term memory Rehearsal: transfer that enables individual to transfer information from working memory to longterm memory. Retrieval: search through long term memory for task at hand.

Assessing remembering and forgetting: 

Explicit memory test: o Recall test: requires a person to produce a response with cues or aids.

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Recognition test: requires a person to select a correct response from several alternative responses. Movement recognition test: involve a person to produce several movements then ask which was the most appropriate for a specific situation.

Causes of Forgetting:    

Trace decay: passing of time Proactive interference: a cause of forgetting because of activity that occurs prior to the presentation of information to be remembered Retroactive interference: a cause of forgetting because of activity occurring during the retention interval. Certain types of motor skills are remembered better over long periods than other types.

Movement Characteristics Related to Memory Performance: 

Location and Distance Characteristics: o Ex: arm movement and end location

The meaningfulness of the movement: may influence remembering movements Strategies that Enhance Memory Performance: 

Increasing a movement's meaningfulness o Visual metaphoric imagery. o Verbal label o Intention to remember o Intentional and incidental memory o Subjective organization: chunking, clustering, and grouping.

Practice-Test Context Effects: 

The encoding specificity principle: relationship between encoding and retrieval processes. Similarity between the practice and the test contexts. Ch. 12 The Stages of learning:

The Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model:   

Cognitive stage: beginning or initial stage on the learning stages contunuum Associative Stage: the second stage of learning, intermediate Autonomous stage

Gentiles two-stage model: 

Initial stage of learning: o Acquire a movement pattern to achieve goal. o Learn to discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory conditions in the environmental context in which he or she performs the skill.

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Later stages of learning: o Adapting the movement patterns o Consistency o Economy of effort o Fixation: learning closed skills (refine movements to produce correctly) o Diversification: learning open skills accoding to environmental context characteristics.

Bernstein's Description of the Learning Process: 

Repetitions

Performer and Performance Changes Across the Stages of Learning: 

Changes in rate of improvement: o Negatively accelerated pattern is more typical of motor skill learning than others. o Power law of practice: mathematical law describing the negatively accelerating change in rate of performance improvement during skill learning; large amounts of improvement occur during early practice, but smaller improvement rates characterize further practice.  Ex: cigar making

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Changes in movement coordination: o Degrees of freedom problem o Freezing the d.f. holds some joints rigid couples joint motions together in tight synchrony while performing the skill.

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Changes in altering an old or preferred coordination pattern Changes in muscles used to perform the skill o EMG patterns produced.

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Changes in Energy Cost Changes in visual selective attention Changes in conscious attention demands when performing a skill Changes in error detection and correction capability Changes in Brain Activity: o Plasticity: changes in neuronal activity in the brain that are associated with shifts in the brain that are associated with shifts in the brain region activation; these changes are commonly associated with behavioral changes or modification

A Performer Characteristic that does NOT Change Across the Stages of Learning:  

Learning is specific to the sources of sensory feedback available during practice. Ex: visual feedback.

Expertise: when a person practices a skill long enough and has the right kind of instruction.   

Experts knowledge structure Problem solving, decision making, and anticipation Experts use of vision

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Expertise and Automaticity...