Module 1 Structural Components of Microprocessors Microcontroller PDF

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MODULE 1 - Structural Componentsof Microprocessors/Microcontroller1 Internal CPU Interconnection 1 ALU 1 CU 1 Registers 1 Other PeripheralsThe First Microprocessor like Intel 4004 was invented by Ted Hoff, Masatoshi Shima, Federico Faggin and Stanley Mazor. The size of these processors is 8bit proce...

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MODULE 1 - Structural Components of Microprocessors/Microcontroller 1.1 Internal CPU Interconnection 1.2 ALU

1.3 CU 1.4 Registers 1.5 Other Peripherals

The First Microprocessor like Intel 4004 was invented by Ted Hoff, Masatoshi

Shima, Federico Faggin and Stanley Mazor. The size of these processors is 8bit processors (it read or write only 1 byte at a time), 16bit (it read or write only 2bytes at a time), 32bit (it read or write only 4 bytes at a time) and 64bit (it read or write the only

byte at a time). It performs all the operations or functions depends on the program

which is written in assembly language by the programmer and its lifetime is more than

3000 hours. Almost all household electronic products contain a microprocessor, some examples are washing machines, fridges, geysers, alarm systems, microwave oven,

laptops, etc.

What is a Microprocessor? The microprocessor is mostly used in embedded control applications such as

household

applications,

automobiles,

and

computer

peripherals.

It

is

an

integrated electronic circuit that controls all functions of the CPU, or central processing

unit, of a computer or other digital devices. The entire function of the CPU is controlled by a single integrated circuit that accepts binary data as input and processes that data according to the given instructions then generates the output. This processor contains

millions of tiny components like transistors, registers, and diodes. The block diagram of this processor is shown in the below figure.

COMPONENTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR

Components of this processor are ALU, Control unit, Input-output devices, and Register array.

● ALU (arithmetic logic unit) performs both arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplications, divisions,

and logical operations such as NOR, AND, NAND, OR, XOR, NOT, XNOR, etc. ● The control unit is used to control the instructions and it generates the

signals to operate the other components.

● The register array consists of registers. Registers that are used by the

programmer to store arbitrary data are known as general-purpose registers and the registers which are not used by a programmer to store the data are

known as the reserved registers. The length of the register is known as the word length of the computer.

● Input-output devices are used to transfer data between microcomputers and external devices

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

The "arithmetic and logic unit" (ALU) performs math computations, such as subtraction, addition, division and Boolean functions. Boolean functions are a type of logic used for

circuit designs. The ALU also executes comparisons and logic testing. The processor transmits signals to the ALU, which interprets the instructions and performs the calculations

Registers

Microprocessors have temporary data holding places called registers. These memory

areas maintain data, such as computer instructions, storage addresses, characters and other data. Some computer instructions may require the use of certain registers as part

of a command. Each register has a specific function, such as instruction register, program counter, accumulator and memory address register. For example, a program register holds the address of instructions taken from random access memory.

Control Unit

Control units (CUs) receive signals from the CPU, which instructs the control unit to move data from microprocessor to microprocessor. The control unit also directs the arithmetic and logic unit. Control units consist of multiple components, such as decoder,

clock and control logic circuits. Working together, these devices transmit signals to certain locations on the microprocessor.

For example, the decoder receives commands from an application. The decoder interprets the instructions and takes an action. It sends signals to the ALU or directs registers to perform specific tasks. The control logic unit transmits signals to different

sections of the microprocessor and registers, which informs these components to

execute actions. The clock sends signals that synchronize and ensure timely execution of commands and processes.

Buses Microprocessors have a system of buses, which move data. Buses refer to

classifications of wiring that have specific tasks and functions. The data bus transfers data between the central processing unit and random access memory (RAM) -- the

computer's primary memory. The control bus sends information necessary to coordinate and control multiple tasks. The address bus transmits the address between the CPU and the RAM for data being processed.

Cache Memory Some advanced microprocessors have memory caches, which retain the last data used

by the CPU. Memory caches speed up the computing process, because the CPU does not have to go to the slower RAM to retrieve data. Many computers have level 1 or level 2 caches; some systems have level 3 caches. The cache level indicates the order in

which the CPU checks for data, starting with level 1. Manufacturers often integrate level

2 and level 3 caches into the microprocessor, which enhances processing speed.

The microprocessors are made by silicon or germanium. Silicon and germanium are

semiconductors, almost

all

electronic components

are

made by

these

semiconductors

Generations of Microprocessor

There are five generations of this processor that mainly include the following. ● First Generation Microprocessor: The first generation processors are 4 – bit

microprocessor in

● Second Generation Microprocessor : The second-generation processors are 8 – bit microprocessor introduced in 1

● Third Generation Microprocessor: The third-generation processors are 16 –

bit microprocessor introduced in 1978.

● Fourth Generation Microprocessor: The fourth-generation processors are

32 – bit microprocessors.

Fifth Generation Microprocessor: The fifth-generation processors are 64 – bit microprocessor.

WORKING OF MICROPROCESSOR

To get the output, the first microprocessor fetches the instructions from the computer

memory and then decodes it and executes those instructions as a result in a binary form. The power of the given microprocessor is measured in terms of bits.

This processor executes the instruction using the following steps

● Fetching (IF): It is the first step of the microprocessor which fetches the

instruction from the memory. ● Decoding (ID): It is the second step of the microprocessor used to decodes

the instruction. ● Executing (EX): It is the last step of this processor that executes the

instructions and the output.

Best Companies of Microprocessor

AMD (advanced micro devices), Intel, Nvidia, Marvell technology group, Enoceangmbh, Ensilica, ARM, Adaptevaare some best companies of this processor. AMD (advanced

micro devices) company recently implemented AMD ryzen 9 3900x, AMD ryzen 5 2600x, etc and intel best microprocessor is Intel core i9-9900k.

Applications

The applications of this processor include the following.

● Gaming

● Web browsing

● Creating documents

● Mathematical calculations

● Simulations

● Photo editing

● In-home appliances

● In automotive electronics

● In metering

● In mobile electronics

● In building automation etc

Advantages

The advantages of this processor include the following

● Low cost

● High speed

● Small size

● Low power consumption

● Versatile

● Reliable

● Portable

● Easy to implement

● Easy to modify

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of this processor include the following. ● Floating-point operations are not supported.

● Sometimes it may get overheated.

Thus, this is all about an overview of the microprocessor. As we know that this processor is one of the best technology which can be used in almost all electronic

products. Its usage is increasing day by day, compared to other technologies the cost is less and the speed of the microprocessor is high.

COMPARISON BETWEEN MICROPROCESSOR AND

MICROCONTROLLER

The main comparison between microprocessor and microcontroller

Microprocessors

Microcontrollers

It is only a general purpose computer

1

CPU

It is a microcomputer itself

2

Memory, I/O ports, timers, interrupts

All are integrated inside the microcontroller

are not available inside the chip

chip

This must have many additional

3

digital components to perform its

Can function as a microcomputer without any

operation

additional components.

Systems

4

become

bulkier

and

expensive.

Make the system simple, economic and

compact

Not capable for handling Boolean

5

functions

Handling Boolean functions

6

Higher accessing time required

Low accessing time

7

Very few pins are programmable

Most of the pins are programmable

Very few number of bit handling

8

instructions Widely Used in modern PC

9

Many bit handling instructions and

laptops

widely in small control systems

INTEL 8086,INTEL Pentium series

INTEL8051,89960,PIC16F877

E.g

.

TYPES OF MICROPROCESSORS

● Vector

Processors: The

vector

processor

is

designed

for

vector

computations and it is an array of operands. It is the process of using vectors

to store a large number of variables for high-intensity data processing. Weather forecasting, human genome mapping, GIS data are some examples

of vector processors are IBM 390/VF, DEC’S vax 9000, etc. ● Processors or SIMD Processors: An array processor is also designed for

vector computations and it is a single instruction multiple data (SIMD) processor. The applications of SIMD include image processing, 3d rendering,

speech recognition, networking, DSP functions, etc.

● Scalar and Superscalar Processors: The processor which executes scalar

data is known as a scalar processor. Scalar processors are maybe the RISC scalar processor or CISC scalar processor. The superscalar processor

executes more than one instruction per clock cycle and it has multiple pipelines.

● Digital Signal Processors: Digital signal processors are used to process signals in a digital form. Applications of DSP are audio signal processing,

digital image processing, video compression, audio compression, speech processing and recognition etc. Digital signal processors are Motorola 56000, national lm 32900 etc.

● RISC Processors: The full form of RISC is reduced instruction set computer. The instructions in this processor are not complex. It is used in high-end

applications such as video processing, telecommunications, and image processing.

● CISC Processors: The full form of CISC is a complex instruction set computer. The instructions in this processor are complex. It requires an

external memory for calculations. The CISC -architecture is used in low-end

applications such as security systems, home automation, etc. ● ASIC Processors: ASIC stands for application-specific integrated circuits. It is

implemented for special functions or applications.

RESOURCES: https://www.techwalla.com/articles/what-is-a-flag-in-a-microprocessor https://www.elprocus.com/microprocessor-generations-and-its-types/

https://www.circuitstoday.com/basics-of-microcontrollers...