Motivation handouts for human behavior PDF

Preview

Summary

hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog hakdog...

Description

MOTIVATION Organizational excellence begins with the performance of people. It is their dedication and commitment to organizational purposes that make the difference. The achievement of organizational goals will depend on the willingness of people to make the necessary contributions. The performance of people is the true benchmark of organizational performance. The job of the manager is to develop and promote behavioral patterns of their people to align with the achievement of their goals. The primary task of the manager is to motivate people towards excellent performance. The Nature of Motivation Anyone who is explicitly concerned with the actions of people must ask some fundamental questions. What makes people do certain things but not others? Why do people act the way they do? How can people be encouraged to act in productive ways? If we assume that people do not behave in a random fashion, we must look for answers in what motivates people. Motivation refers to the why and cause of behavior. Motivation energizes behavior and gives it direction. A motivated person will work harder and persevere longer than an unmotivated one. The level of intensity and persistence for the motivated person will be higher. Example: A motivated athlete will endure long hours of practice daily than one who is not. Yet, motivation also directs behavior. Motivation is the strength of the drive toward an action. It refers to a whole class of drives, needs, and similar forces that prompt a person to act in a certain way or to develop a tendency for specific behavior. A Basic Motivation Model

A basic model of motivation is drawn in Figure 1.1. Internal needs and drives produce some imbalance in the individual's internal state. The imbalance creates tension and discomfort in the person. A person identifies his goals and then takes some kind of effort to fulfill his goals. The action, if successful, produces satisfaction and current behavior is ended. The individual then turns his attention to some other activity. Otherwise, there is frustration for needs. The individual may continue to engage until a particular need is satisfied. The motivational model can be seen as a chain and the various elements therein as links. Needs create tension which stimulate effort to perform. Rewards are received that bring about satisfaction. Needs satisfaction completes the chain and provides feedback. Influence of Culture Any society has values which are generally shared by its members. Values are conceptions of the desirable. They influence an individual's choices and actions. Socio-cultural values play an important role in motivation and behavior. Among Filipinos, four concepts have been found to be useful in explaining behavior patterns. 1. Amor-propio or Self esteem. This is a deep sense of dignity, a desire to be treated as a human being rather than as a thing. A Filipino is very sensitive to words or actions of others which might be led as violating his amor propio. 2. Hiya or Embarrassment. This refers to a feeling of inferiority, shyness, and alienation which is a painful experience. This usually leads a Filipino to avoid hiya by behaving in what is deemed to be an acceptable way. 3. Utang na Loob or Obligation. This is a sense of gratitude for favors or help received from others. Because he has utang na loob, a Filipino would exert effort to be able to repay sometime in the future a favor given to him though not necessarily in the same form as it was granted. 4. Pakikisama or Getting Along Together. This is a desire for smooth interpersonal relations (SIR). Filipinos place a high value in developing or maintaining good feelings with others. In group work, the tendency is to maintain rather than ignore pakikisama which may lead to inefficiencies. Certain motives come about as a result of the cultural environment in which a person lives. The manager should understand that these are some of the motives that employees bring with them when they enter the organization. Such motives will affect how they view their work and how important it is to them. In Western societies, McCleland identified three of the most important motives as achievement motive, affiliation motive, and power motive. Achievement Motive. People with a high need for achievement have an intense desire for success. They work hard and take carefully calculated risks. They take personal responsibility for getting a job done. They want concrete feedback as to how well they are doing. Accomplishment is important for its own sake, not for the reward that follows it.

Affiliation Motive. People with a high need for affiliation are concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationships. They want friendly interactions with others. Power Motive. People with a high need for power have a great desire to influence people and control situations. They seek leadership positions and are willing to take risks to get there.

NEEDS SATISFACTION The concept of needs satisfaction, shown in Figure 1.2, is a natural starting point in understanding human motivation. People have certain needs, wants, and desires. They behave in order to satisfy them. It will provide a basis for managers to respond to the needs of workers in order to motivate them toward the actual accomplishment of tasks in the organization.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS People have a variety of needs; and needs manifest themselves in many forms. Abraham H. Moslow placed human needs in a hierarchy of relative prepotency, as shown in figure below. In this scheme there are lower and higher order needs. The lower needs are prepotent in the sense that they highly determine behavior until they are satisfied. Once satisfied, they cease to act as motivators. That is when the higher order needs are activated and they in turn organize behavior until they too are gratified.

5 basic human needs 1. Physiological needs These are the basic need, such as food water, sleep, and air 2. Safety and security needs These are needs to be free from physical and psychological harm, threat and deprivation. As aspect of these needs is the preference for familiar rather than unfamiliar things, for the known instead of the known 3. Love and social needs These are needs for love, affection, and affiliation as well as the need to belong. 4. Esteem and status needs These are the desires for self respect, or self esteem, and for the esteem of others. These include the desires for achievements, confidence, independence, and freedom as well as reputation, prestige, recognition, attention, importance and appreciation. 5. Self actualization or self-fulfillment needs

These are desires to realize one’s potential to become everything that one is capable of becoming. In Maslow’s words “a musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. Clayton Alderfer made a similar point when he proposed a need hierarchy with only three instead of five levels, as illustrated in figure below. He redefined the human basic needs as existence, relatedness, and growth needs and postulated that they may be active as motivation simultaneously.

1. EXISTENCE NEEDS. These needs include Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. 2. RELATEDNESS NEEDS. These needs refer to social and belongingness needs. 3. GROWTH NEEDS. These involve both the desire for self esteem and self actualization. ERG model does not presume a strict progression from one need level to another. It accepts the possibility that all three needs may be active at any time, instead of any of them being activated only upon substantial satisfaction of the others. In other words, the activation of one need does not necessarily depend upon the satisfaction of the others. In addition, if a person experiences frustration at either of the two higher levels, he may slide back to concentrate on a lower level. A person who is receiving a substantial compensation package may still want more economic benefit if his goal of social acceptance is continually thwarted.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory Proponent: Frederick Herzberg Published: In “The Motivation to work” on 1959 Focus: Individual in the workplace but it has been popular with managers as it also emphasized the importance of management knowledge and expertise. About: -

Factors that are involved in producing job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those factors that are leading to job dissatisfaction.

-

Opposite of…

Job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but no job satisfaction Job dissatisfaction not job satisfaction but no job dissatisfaction -

Two different sets (needs) that are involved:

(1) the need to avoid pain (lower level needs) Stimuli: Hygiene factors – presence not generally motivate but absence produces dissatisfaction (2) the need for achievement and psychological growth (higher level needs) Stimuli: Motivators – presence yield satisfaction and absence does not generally produce dissatisfaction but no satisfaction -

Aim: (1) to prevent dissatisfaction, should focus on hygienic factors (2) to motivate employees, concentrate on motivators

The Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model (shown in the figure above) contains examples of both hygiene factors which are evident in the “need to avoid pain” and motivation factors that support the “need for achievement”. The theory proposes that most factors which contribute to job satisfaction are motivators and most factors which contribute to job dissatisfaction are hygiene elements.

This figure above represents how Herzbergs’s Two-Factor Model functions and the concept it portrays in the organizational setting including the effects of it when it comes to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in relation to the presence and absence of the said factors. Techniques of Job Enrichment Herzberg proposes the job enrichment which grew out of the hygiene-motivation theory and which tends to make the job challenging and meaningful. Herein are the outlines of the techniques with its corresponding motivators.

Comparing the Needs-Based Theories of Motivation

Similarity: Point to the human need as the main determinant of behavior. Difference: Human needs do not seem operating in the same way. · Maslow’s theory: All needs are motivators so long as they remain unsatisfied. · Herzberg’s scheme: - Only the higher-order needs serve as motivators. - More specific in providing a framework by which needs can be satisfied. - Relate need satisfaction to job conditions: job content (only motivators) and job context. Application of the Three Models in the Organizational Setting - Manager should assess the employee’s need level and actual job conditions. - Concentration on lower-order needs or hygiene factors to establish proper job context. - Manager then addresses the higher-order needs.

Survey Results Respondents assigned highest importance to following characteristics: a.

being able to make use of individual abilities

b. getting a feeling of accomplishments in the job c.

having opportunities for advancement

Respondents assigned less importance to following characteristics: a.

the pay comparing well with that of other workers

b. the job enabling the individual to be “somebody” in the community Thus, results suggest that the ideal job is one that is intrinsically rewarding while extrinsic rewards matter too but they are of lesser importance. Areas of Concern 1. Area of rewards Type of Rewards: intrinsic (personal) and extrinsic (material)

2. Area of relationships Types of Relationships: Relationship with people and Relationship with machines and the like Application of need theories of motivation requires an accurate assessment of individual needs. However, the manager considers not only personal needs but as well as the organizational needs. Thus, he acts in a way that will make those needs congruent. Reference: British Library. (n.d.). Frederick Herzberg (The Hygiene Motivation Theory Thinker). Retrieved April 15, 2020, from https://www.bl.uk/people/frederickherzberg#:~:text=The%20theory%20proposes%20that %20most,hygiene%20elements%20(company%20policy%2C%20general.

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION People respond not only to their internal needs but also to the external consequences of their actions. Behavior Modification is based on the premise that behavior is controlled by the nature of its consequences. It is based on B.F. Skinner’s pioneering work on operant conditioning and since then, it has gained much ground as a motivational tool. It involves the systematic application of rewards to effect desired behaviors. The likelihood that behavior will be repeated increases when it is accompanied by favorable consequences, and decreases when accompanied by unfavorable consequences. Absence of any significant consequence leads to extinction of behavior. To obtain desired behaviors over the long term, these must be accompanied by favorable consequences. On the other hand, to deter undesirable behavior, it must be followed by unfavorable consequences to prevent its recurrence. Behavior modification through reinforcement gives a greater degree of control to the manager, who can administer favorable or unfavorable consequences on a selective basis upon each occurrence of desirable or undesirable behavior.

FOUR WAYS TO ACCOMPLISH BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 1. Positive Reinforcement -

-

It provides a favorable consequence that encourages the recurrence of a specified behavior. Positive reinforcement is effective in shaping behavior. Normally. desired behavior will not come about immediately, but evolve over a period of time. Hence, reinforcements are given successively along the way so long as behavior is in the desired direction, rather than only at the end when proper behavior is already clearly visible. This way, reinforcements are used to maintain progress toward the desired behavior. Once attained, the proper behavior is regularly reinforced as behavior tends to diminish through lack of reinforcement.

Example: ● A student who studies diligently receives favorable consequences in the form of high grades in the exams. Therefore, he continues to study hard. ● A worker may find that when he does some high-quality work, the supervisor praises him for doing so. Since the worker likes praise, he is encouraged to do high-quality work again. 2. Negative Reinforcement -

It is characterized by the removal of an unwanted consequence upon correct behavior.

Example: ● An electrician finds that when he wears safety gloves while working, he avoids the pain, if not death, due to electric shock. Then, he continues to wear safety gloves.

3. Punishment -

Refers to the provision of an unwanted consequence upon occurrence of incorrect behavior so as to discourage it.

Example: ● An employee is suspended from work for habitual tardiness. The employee then is deterred from committing the same violation again. - It is used to deter undesirable behavior, but there are limitations to that. Skinner says that “the person who has been punished is not thereby simply less inclined to behave in a given way, at best, he learns to avoid punishment.” - Unlike positive reinforcement, it does not directly encourage any kind of desirable behavior. - In addition, in a typical work setting, the supervisor who administers the punishment is usually the same who offers positive reinforcement as well as other instances. Resulting confusion between those two roles may reduce the supervisor’s credibility when giving positive reinforcement in the future. 4. Extinction -

May occur when behavior is not accompanied by any significant results. Wittingly or unwittingly, a particular behavior may have been deemed neither desirable nor undesirable. Hence, it is neither explicitly rewarded nor punished but simply ignored. Example: In a committee meeting, somebody suggests several ideas for consideration and he did not receive any response. There is neither acceptance nor rejection, but the members simply move on to another topic. What can happen is this person:

-

● · Will no longer offer suggestions ● · May not even bother to attend committee meetings anymore Lack of consequence has extinguished his idea-sharing behavior. Positive reinforcement is the most valuable as a motivational tool. Performance feedback in terms of rewards not only shapes behavior but also enhances one’s self esteem and status. In this way, one learns that specific behavior patterns lead to rewards that, in turn, satisfy his need to enhance his self-esteem. However, positive reinforcement has to be managed well to be effective.

REINFORCEMENT GUIDELINES The way reinforcement is carried out is more important than the amount or value of the rewards.

1. The behavior to be reinforced should be clearly identified. The more information content there is, the better. “Reduce the number of defects by 5% at the end of this year,” is better than simply saying. “Improve quality.” 2. The reinforcement should be immediate. As much as possible, the reinforcement should be given right after the achievement of specified behavior. 3. The feedback mechanism should take account even of small achievements. Big achievements are rare relative to small ones, so the reward system should recognize small achievements too. 4. The system should offer both tangible as well as tangible rewards. Material rewards are necessary, but praise, recognition, and attention are powerful reinforcements also. 5. The value of small rewards should not mean that it should not be given at all. On the contrary, rewards, big and small alike, should be there. But, aside from the question of affordability, large rewards can become the subject of political maneuvers as people may concentrate on getting them rather than on performing. The small rewards, especially symbolic ones, on the other hand, become a cause for celebration, not political intrigues.

THE ROLE OF EXPECTATIONS

Social learning theory stresses the importance of cognitive process instead unlike the needs satisfaction approach that focuses on internal needs and unlike behavior modification that concentrates on external reinforcements. People select behavior patterns by: ● · Direct experience ● · Observing others Thus, they are able to foresee the probable consequences of their actions and thereby alter their behavior accordingly. People’s actions are determined in large measure by anticipated consequences. Anticipated consequences, represented symbolically in a person’s thoughts, motivate behavior in much the same way as actual consequences do. Man does not simply react; he thinks before he acts. Manager must look beyond internal needs or external reinforcements in understanding what a person actually does. They must bear in mind that employee’s expectations play a major role. What is relevant to him is whether his efforts will result in performance, whether performance will lead to rewards and whether rewards will, in turn, lead to satisfaction. These mentioned issues can be visualized as elements in an effort-performance-reward-satisfaction chain. It is obvious that the higher the expectations, the stronger will be the motivation to perform. The foundation of the expectancy theory was developed by Victor H. Vroom and was subsequently expanded by Lyman W. Porter and Edwards E. Lawler III. The expectancy theory states that motivation is a product of three variables such as: 1. Valence – represents how much a person wants a reward 2. Expectancy – refers to a person’s estimate of the probability that effort will result in effective performance 3. Instrumentality – relates to a person’s estimate that performance will lead to receiving the reward In the formula form, the relationship can be portrayed as follows: Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

VALENCE Valence is the value that a person places upon the reward associated with doing anything. It is an expre...