NATURE, FUNCTION, AND ROLE OF CULTURE: MULTICULTURALISM, CROSS- CULTURALISM, INTER-CULTURALISM, TRANSCULTURALISM, MASS CULTURE, POPULAR CULTURE, SUBALTERN CULTURE, MEDIA CULTURE, CONSUMER CULTURE PDF

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NATURE, FUNCTION, AND ROLE OF CULTURE: MULTICULTURALISM, CROSS- CULTURALISM, INTER-CULTURALISM, TRANSCULTURALISM, MASS CULTURE, POPULAR CULTURE, SUBALTERN CULTURE, MEDIA CULTURE, CONSUMER CULTURE ([email protected], [email protected]) 1. Introduction Culture is an ever changing feature which could...

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NATURE, FUNCTION, AND ROLE OF CULTURE: MULTICULTURALISM, CROSSCULTURALISM, INTER-CULTURALISM, TRANSCULTURALISM, MASS CULTURE, POPULAR CULTURE, SUBALTERN CULTURE, MEDIA CULTURE, CONSUMER CULTURE ([email protected], [email protected]) 1. Introduction Culture is an ever changing feature which could be understood from different dimensions of its expressions and realities. The nature and role of culture varies between communities, nations etc. So, understanding nature and its functions could occur through its variety of definitions, its encounter with other cultures, knowing prevailing cultures in the society, and various facets of expressions through technologies, economics, contemporary problems and consumeristic features. This paper is an exploration of the above said aspects of culture and understanding its meanings and manifestations in the society. 2. Etymology of the word ‘Culture’ Culture is a highly complex term and this has been understood differently in different context and different sciences. The term „culture‟ in Latin means cultivation, as in agriculture; the root word of culture is „colo’ which means to tend, to care for, to refine, to cultivate, to venerate, to worship etc. The German „kultur’ refers to the idea of higher values and enlightenment, which basically has to deal with the training in arts and science in order to enter the ruling class. 1 In Sanskrit, it can be best expressed in the word Samskriti which is derived from Samskar, meaning ritual and performance. However, in the rural tongue the word used in India is Prakriti which is means nature.2 Literally „culture‟ means cultivation, or the state of being cultivated. „Cult‟ means religious worship and ritual. There is a close affinity between the different kinds of work we do

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S. C Evelyn Monteiro, Church and Culture: Communion in Pluralism, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2004), 49. D. N. Majumdar and T. M. Madan, An Introduction to Social Anthropology, (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1977), 14. 2

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in relation to nature, agriculture and cult, religious ritual and culture, the various artistic expressions of people.3 3. Definitions of Culture Edward B. Taylor‟s famous definition of culture is probably the most quoted of all in text books: “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society.” 4 Robert H. Lowie defines culture as “the sum total of what an individual acquires from his society those beliefs, customs, artistic norms, food habits, and crafts which came to him not by his own creative activity but as a legacy from the past, conveyed by formal or informal education.”5 According to Boris Erasov and Yogendra Singh, the term “culture” has two basic meanings. On the one hand, it denotes the quality or level of a phenomenon, according to how acceptable it is in the given society. In this sense, the word “culture” goes back to the Latin word cultura, which meant the cultivation of soil or the raising of domestic animals. On the other hand it can be used to describe the uniqueness of the given society by learning differences between one culture, style or behavioral pattern and another.6 Kappen defines culture as “culture is a process. A community not only perceives and interprets reality in a specific way but also elaborates its perceptions and interpretations into ethics, philosophy, religion, science and aesthetic creations as well as into social structures and institutions. Each community has to devise ways and means of sharing its culture among all its members, thus ensuring the reproduction of the socio-cultural system.”7 After surveying and analyzing more than 160 definitions of culture, A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn have summarized the basic ideas as follows: “Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit type of behaviour acquired and transmitting by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts. The essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values. Cultural system may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on 3

Masao Takenaka, God is Rice; Asian Culture and Christian Faith, (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1989), 27-72. 4 Subhadra Channa, Understanding Society, Culture and Change, (New Delhi: Blaze Publishers, 1994), 23. 5 Louis J. Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures: New Perspectives in Missiological Anthropology, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 1989), pp. 134-135. 6 Boris Erasov and Yogendra Singh, The Sociology of Culture, (Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2006), 13. 7 S. Kappen, Tradition Modernity Counterculture, (Bangalore; Visthar, 1994), 10, 26

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the other hand, as conditioning elements of further action.”8 Herder was also the first to use “culture” in the plural, which became an important step towards the recognition of the Uniqueness of different cultures existing simultaneously and interacting with one another.9 Culture is understood of being both inherited and acquired. For Majumdar, culture is a „social heritage‟10 and for Margret Mead culture means “traditional behaviour which has been developed by the human race and is successfully learned by each generation.”11 In short, Culture is the sum total of values, attitudes, beliefs, gender relations, practices of child rearing and prevailing norms. It is the economic, political, social and spiritual organization of people‟s way of life.12 Culture comprises of language, habits, customs social organization, intellectual artifacts, technological process and values.13 Culture is ever changing and therefore it is not static but dynamic. 4. Culture and cultures In the present context, it is important to see how each culture engages with other cultures and this interaction has resulted in a „mess‟ thereby making it a complex phenomenon. 4. 1. Multiculturalism In Multiculturalism different groups live alongside each other, appreciating and seeing value in one‟s own culture as well as the cultures of others. Multicultural ideology refers to “overall evaluation of the majority group addressing the degree to which they possess positive attitudes towards immigrants and cultural diversity.”14 Though there is polite social interaction yet the power dynamics are not addressed.

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New Catholic Encyclopedia of America, (Washington D. C: Catholic University of America, l98l), 522. Boris Erasov and Yogendra Singh, The Sociology of Culture, 14. 10 DN. Majumdar and T.M. Madan, An Introduction to Social Anthropology, 14. 11 Kathryn Tanner, Theories of Culture: A New Agenda for Theology, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997),

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28. 12

Zubeno Kithan, Women in Church and Society, (SCEPTRE: Kolkata, 2014), p. 100. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures, (New York: Harper Collins, 1973), 52. 14 Arends Toth, J., & Van de Vijver, F. J. R.(2003). Multiculturalism and acculturation: Views of Dutch and Turkish-Dutch. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 249-266. 13

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4. 2. Cross-Culturalism In Cross-culturalism there is a cultural exchange between diverse cultures and in the process of this reaching across boundaries an individual undergoes quantitative and qualitative changes by integrating culturally acceptable concepts, attitudes and actions of another culture. 15 In this concept the cultures are compared and contrasted wherein one culture is considered as superior and the other as inferior. The power dynamics are not addressed in this and it allows for limited learning or exchange between cultural groups. Though the differences are acknowledged or understood yet there is no scope for individual or collective transformation.16 4. 3. Inter-culturalism Inter-culturalism is used interchangeably with cross-culturalism and refers to the engagements and face to face interactions between diverse cultures. 17 In this concept, there is mutual learning because of the interaction. There is no one who is unchanged because there is introspection of one‟s own culture along with the interaction with other cultures. Racial and cultural power imbalances are addressed, which enables each to learn from each other and also lead to transformation of all people.18 4. 4. Transculturalism In the present context of multiple cultures, the concept of transculturalism is gaining momentum. This term was first used by Fernando Ortiz to denote the notion of converging cultures. He was primarily concerned with Afro-Cuban culture wherein he emphasized on the need to change with the times, seek new yardsticks and give up obsolete ideas. He emphasized on de-culturation of the past, and then re-invention of fresh cultures based on the new realities of the present complex world. Therefore, no longer is one‟s identity defined in singular terms (uni-dimensional) but due

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Young Yun Kim, Becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of Communication and Cross-cultural Adaptation, (London: New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2001), 46. 16 Susan Fries, “Cultural, Multicultural, Cross-Cultural, Intercultural: Moderator‟s Proposal.” TESOLFrance, 5. 17 Fred E. Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community. 5th ed. (London, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2007), 36. 18 Susan Fries, “Cultural, Multicultural, Cross-Cultural, Intercultural, 6.

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to meeting and intermingling of the different peoples and cultures one‟s identity is multidimensional.19 5. Understanding Culture 5.1 Culture as a standard of excellence Here culture is viewed as an ideal to which individuals and societies ought to aspire. We become “cultured” by being exposed to and struggling to understand certain touchstones of literature, philosophy, poetry and art works that represent great achievements of the human spirit and by internalizing the values that have produced them – aesthetic, moral, philosophical and religious values. Familiarity with such personalities as Plato, Virgil, Dante, Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, John Locke, Immanuel Kant, Freud, Tolstoy, Picasso, T.S. Elliot, and Martin Heidegger, and training in the arts, cuisines, athletics, proper apparel and social manners are the means by which we become cultured persons. This approach is associated with the field of studies traditionally referred to as the humanities. While it is sometimes written off as an elitist view of culture, the same dynamic is at work in a multitude of changed forms.20 5.2 Culture as a way of life In this understanding, sometimes referred to as “the modern anthropological view of culture”, the idea is that there are multiple cultures in the world, each of them self-contained and internally coherent, each one a homogeneous, functioning organism driven by its own peculiar genius. This is the concept of culture that is found in the classic period of the discipline of cultural anthropology. This is the view of culture most of us received who grew up reading National Geographic, and some version of it is still prevalent in cultural anthropology, although it is eroding.21

Lucia Mihaela Grosu, “Multiculturalism or Transculturalism? Views on Cultural Diversity” Synergy Volume 8, (no 2/2012): 108. 20 Kelton Cobb, The Blackwell Guide to Theology and Popular Culture, (USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005), 42. 21 Kelton Cobb, The Blackwell Guide to Theology and Popular Culture, 42-43. 19

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5.3 Transmission of Culture Culture is transmitted from generation to generation through stories, poems, songs, and other forms of written and spoken language, family structure, religious practices and rituals; art, sculpture, architecture, crafts, clothing, and other physical objects; and special occasions such as dance, holidays, and celebrations. Although a group can choose its own culture, many aspects of culture are often thrust upon a group by external conditions, such as poverty and physical isolation from the dominant culture.22 6. Manifestations of Culture It is necessary to know different expressions of culture to understand culture. Some are explained here. 6.1 Popular Culture Popular culture is the set of practices, artifacts and beliefs shared by the masses, and are constituted by the everyday life of the masses: the food habits, fashion, forms of transport, the music, and the reading habits, the spaces they occupy and traverse. Popular culture is the culture of the masses. It is writings, comic books, mass cinema (as opposed to „art cinema‟), popular music (as opposed to classical music), the open spaces of the city (as opposed to art galleries), sports etc. It is the culture of the everyday life of the larger number of people.23 6.2 Mass culture The term „mass culture‟ was used negatively that the only „true‟ culture was of the elite members of society. The culture of the wealthy minority section of the population was projected as the „standard‟ or „true‟ culture. Certain authors, forms and genres were given respectability as „culture‟. That is, the very term „culture‟ came to be associated with a smaller section of the population and their tastes.24

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Roy L. Brooks, Integration or Separation? A Strategy for Racial Equality, (England: Harvard University Press, 1996), 250. 23 Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, (New Delhi: Viva books, 2011), 5-6. 24 Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 5-6.

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6.3 Post-colonialism and culture Simon During, noted cultural theorist, outlines a set of reasons for connecting post colonialism with globalization studies (2000). i) All culture now is linked with the supply of money. ii) All cultures now have transnational subsidiaries, opponents or collaborations. iii) Cultures are no more territorial and hence do not cohere or fuse into wholes or „traditions‟. What this means is culture is increasingly mediated by economic factors. Culture has increasingly little to do with traditions or territories. Global economic and media flows determine what aspects of culture are adopted or abandoned. For example, fashion changes in cultures across the world are determined less by local conditions and values than a circulation of global fashion patterns. Cultures and traditions are therefore modified not with the local culture in mind but with global patterns. Their choices are determined by the global economy.25 6.4 Local cultures and global economics Local cultures are linked to global economies, markets and needs, and hence any study of contemporary culture has to examine the role of a non-local market/money, which require a postcolonial awareness of the role of racial difference, the colonial relationship between „First World‟ and „Third World‟ and the exploitative relationship between the two worlds even today.26 6.5 Subaltern cultures Subaltern communities are constituted by age, race, ethnicity, gender, etc., and often develop into “subcultures,” in the sense that they share a way of life, and particularly a use of speech, common values, solidarity in suffering and a shared self-image, that distinguishes them from the dominant culture. Subcultures have an collection of ways to resist their oppression, including a fluid semiotics of “style,” by means of which they shield themselves from and undermine the dominant culture through the guerilla tactics of slang, ironic practices of consumption, and the 25 26

Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 36. Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 36.

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development of gestures, codes of conduct, and icons with meanings impenetrable to all but the experts. This view is central to the field of cultural studies. 6. 6 Consumer culture Consumer culture is about the consumption of goods and services. This has two aspects. They are: 1. The cultural dimension of economy, where goods and services are not merely utilities but also have symbolic value. Here, goods have economic value but also carry symbolic value of status and prestige. While a price can be placed on a good, symbolic values of prestige cannot be measured in single economic terms. 2. The economic dimension of culture, where even cultural goods, styles and commodities have economic value and are governed by market principles, monopoly trade practices, competition and labour relations. Here, goods have a certain symbolic value but they are also part of a larger market/economic process.27 6.7 Culture and human activities Culture is a form of human activity. At the same time, it has an independent existence, from each individual and from each society at any given moment in time. Culture gathers and concentrates within itself the following factors: 1) the sum total of forms of activity, existing at the present; 2) the past experience of the given society‟s evolution; 3) the innovations and discoveries which propel society into a new stage in its development.28 6. 8 Media Culture Media culture is understood by the ways in which communication and community are linked. Communication is about language, discourse and representation and representation is central to 27 28

Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 124-125. Boris Erasov and Yogendra Singh, The Sociology of Culture, 30.

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the production, consumption and mediation of cultural products. Therefore, it is important to look at the structures and technologies that produce these representations.29 6.9 Media culture and modern technologies Advertising, marketing and critique are all features associated with media. Media are technologies of communication, and therefore of meaning production and meaning dissemination. There can be media that is one-to-one (for example, a phone conversation between two people) or it can be a medium of mass communication (like the film). Films are often referred to as mass media or mass communication. In mass media, the source is central and usually single, and the audience (or addressee) is the total number of human beings far away from the source. Thus mass media like films affect and influence a large number of people, and are therefore integral to culture.30 6.10 Media culture and contemporary concerns Media culture reproduces existing social values, oppressions and inequalities. When, for instance, TV serials or films return us to the glorified „perfect‟ family, they gloss over the gender inequalities that exist within the patriarchal family structure. When a film depict the corruption of the political system and the common man‟s quest for justice at the hands of an equally corrupt police, they articulate issues we see every day in our own lives and read about in newspapers.31 Media culture clearly reflects the multiple sides of contemporary debates and problems. Media culture helps reinforce the hegemony and power of specific political, cultural and economic groups. Media culture does not need to declare its position or ideology openly: it only needs to suggest. Showing a film star guzzling coke in a film, or using particular brands of clothing is not necessarily a marketing strategy for the product. But what it does is to suggest that stars wear certain kinds of clothes, and that their glamour is in part the effect of the clothes. Media culture is provocative because it sometimes asks us to rethink what we know, or reinforce what we believe in. Thus the portrayal of Pakistan as a „terrorist state‟ in Hindi films reinforces

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Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 41. Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 41. 31 Pramod K. Nayar, An Introduction to Cultural Studies, 41. 30

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the political and social image of Pakistan by raising our anger levels at the injustices of Pakistan‟s army (but remains silent on any human and civil rights violation by the Indian army in Kashmir).32 7. Role of Culture / culture and values Some basic roles of culture which exists commonly in society are mentioned here. 7.1 Family, relatives and the older generation. These social elements are objects of respect, to some degree, in all...