Nature of human development PDF

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Environmentalists say that behavior is explained, it is understood by the influence of environmental, external factors, so the subject learns, by contextual tendencies. This controversy remains when it comes to explaining human development. It is clear that there is an environmental influence and al...

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NATURE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Evolutionary Psychology is that branch of general psychology whose object of study is human development, as people change as we cover stages of their life. We can consider two major types of changes in human development: The changes that are absolutely predictable. These are typical changes of each age. There are other changes that are unique to each individual, then cannot be predicted. These are personal, atypical changes, they can come by circumstances. (Influenced by circumstances) Keep in mind that all these changes occur in three changes that are: In the biosocial sphere: those changes that occur in the biological, cerebral sphere. The purely cognitive field refers to those changes that affect relationships with others (attitude). The contexts in which human change occurs must also be taken into account in human development. son: Historical context : the time in which we live determines us. Cultural context : set of values, rites, customs, objects typical of a group of people, configures our way of life. Socio-economic context: there is a series of indicators that point long and stretchtoed to the social class in which it belongs. Ethnic context : there are traditions that are shared with race (language, religion, etc.). Controversies of Evolutionary Psychology. Inheritance versus atmosphere. Controversial between those who are innatistas and those who are environmentalists. For the innatistas, the behavior is fruit in the inherited, the genetic. Environmentalists say that behavior is explained, it is understood by the influence of environmental, external factors, so the subject learns, by contextual tendencies. This controversy remains when it comes to explaining human development.

It is clear that there is an environmental influence and also genetic influence. Behavior will depend on both the innate and the acquired. Inheritance : the set of genetic influences that affect physical, psychological and social development. Environment : refers to all those influences of the context environment from the embryo to the death of the human being. Continuity versus discontinuity. For some authors the growth, the development of people is constant, continuous (we are developing by biopsychosocial). Other authors advocate another behavior, it is to consider that in human growth there are qualitative leaps, abrupt changes, sudden, that would mark different stages. For authors who advocate discontinuity, growth occurs in stages. Development is both cross-trends. No absolute continuity or absolute discontinuity, but personalized continuity. Irreversibility versus reversibility. Studies are resentful that confirm the attachment felt by a child and his mother confirming that in the long term this long-term bond established between mother and child can have a long-term consequence that determines the future of this person. Irreversible : psychoanalyst. Reversible : environmentalists - behaviorists. The early years of life have a greater influence than later years. Increasingly, it is agreed that the path we take in life (decisions...) are equally determined by both those learnings initiated and subsequent ones. "The first few years influence us but they don't determine." Scientific methods and research in Evolutionary Psychology. Scientific method. The difference between science and non-science (pseudoscience) is the scientific method you use to conduct your research determines whether it is science or pseudoscience. The scientific method is characterized because a procedural set converts into theory or hypothesis into science.

Steps. Everything is born by asking us a question. Develop the relevant hypothesis (one hypothesis is to venture, predict what is going or may occur) I check through a research project whether the hypothesis is true or false. I draw a whole series of conclusions that follow from these results. I publish the results of how this data was obtained and favor the replication of the experiment. Replica : repetition of the experiment by other researchers. Observation is widely used as a technique in evolutionary psychology. This observation can be of two types: Experimental observation: Experimental psychology consists of recording behaviors in an experimental (laboratory) situation. E.g. one-way window : "visible mirror". Naturalistic observation :the observation of behaviors in the environment where the person performs every day. Going to the context where the facts occur. One strategy of research models is experiments. I relate two or more variables in such a way that one of them is given two certain values and I notice that changes make in the second. The variable in which I modify, I manipulate, is the independent variable and the dependent variable is the one in which I observe the modifications made to the independent variable (or by the independent variable). Two types of design are typically used in the research, which are longitudinal designs and cross-sectional designs. Longitudinal design. I form a person or the same group of people, I will observe them in the different temporal moments (mortality problem : abandonment of the experiment, does the generation effect). Transversal Design. We compare people of different ages, similar in some characteristics and compare the different age groups. E.g. 5 months, 1 group ; 9 months, 1 group ; 12 months, 1 group. And at the same time I observe how each group is affected by the admission to the nursery (at the same time). It always has to have the experiment internal validity, it doesn't have it. Both have advantages and inconveniences but are best suited for evolutionary psychology.

No design is perfect but there is a third modality which is the sequential design consisting of mixing the previous two : cross-cutting data are contaminated by generation (e.g. independent) longitudinal data may not be becoming more generalized to other generations. Then I have to research with a design that alleviates the problems of internal v. and external v. . transversal I will form two groups of born in different years and study them at a transverse moment and at the same time study it longitudinally. Internal validity – that actually finds a causal relationship between the independent variable and dependent variables. External validity – means that the data I obtain can be generalized to others. The higher the internal v. the lower the external validity. Main theoretical models in Evolutionary Psychology. Psychoanalytic theories. Freud For psychoanalysis and for Freud, all human development is fundamentally based on the unconscious. Freud develops a theory of human development on the basis that human behavior is determined by unconscious impulses. Freud arrives in an intellectual climate in which the national man was seen. And the candid, innocent, asexual child is challenged. Freud began to investigate with his patients, and saw that his patients' roots came from something he had not previously overcome (psychology). Behavior is very determined by the underlying rational processes. We're not that rational. Stages. For Freud, human development could be sequenced in different stages. The steps you determine are as follows: Oral Stage. The lactation stage all pleasure, all interest is centered on the mouth area. The child will experience pleasure with everything related to the mouth. Once we pass this stage, we move on to the next one.

Anal stage. I would go from breastfeeding to 3 years and all interest is focused on the control and self-control of the sphincters. The child starts with autonomy. These first three stages correspond from 0 years to 6 years. Latency stage. It ranges from the age of 6 to 12. Sexual impulses get numb. Genital stage. It corresponds to adolescence and therefore to the awakening of sexual maturity. If we pass it without difficulty we will be healthy adults and if you have problems will be repressed adults. Concepts. Freud establishes three hypothetical concepts: This: it is the unconscious. When the child is born it is pure it, The pure instinct. This followed by the principle of pleasure. The principle of pleasure determines that instinct is satiated and at the moment. Me : it is gradually created, it is the rational part and is generated from the interaction with reality. The me therefore has a mission to tame it. The self is governed by the principle of reality, that is, it must be satisfied, but in an appropriate and realistic way. (I strong / i weak) Super ego : appears around 4 or 5 years, coinciding with the phallic stage. The super ego seeks perfection and seeks self-criticism. And assimilate the moral values of parents. Conclusion: every person we do is inherit a series of child conflicts along with ways to deal with them. If these are good experiences we are people capable of overcoming conflicts, certain situations. If, on the contrary, they are traumatic or reprimanded experiences we will not be able to face certain situations, we will have a weak self. Repression: sometimes we do not know what to do and we put in place the defense mechanisms, these mechanisms protect us from the conflict that seems threatening to us. (e.g. denial). Repression is to move away from the conscious sphere what hurts us and the symptom appears (e.g. taxi, policeman, who scares him and unconscious feelings appears) Erikson He was a very cosmopolitan person (he traveled a lot). He applied therapies with very different people. He received from many sources. He provided that Freud's psychosexual theory, the stages, are few and limited. Human development is formed in stages, but it is enlarged with the environment.

On the one hand it takes the theory of Freud (human development), but each stage of development involves a difficulty, which is called the crisis of maturity, which each subject, each person must solve. And it adds the factor that explains whether or not they are overcome is going to be the interaction between the characteristics of each one and the social environment in which the subject lives. Erikson's theory is called psychosocial theory. It proposes 8 stages (the first five forms a close relationship with Freud's and the other three marks a relationship with adulthood). Stages. Stage of trust versus mistrust. (0 - 1 year) It is the first difficulty that the child has to cover. The child needs to trust that their basic needs will be met, by the adults responsible for these tasks. If the child does not learn this confidence, he or she will develop neurotic symptoms. Stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt. (1 - 3 years) The child begins to explore the world around him. Start with sphincter control, start talking, get attention. The child begins to be self-sufficient or learns to be afraid and doubt his own attitudes, abilities. Stage of initiative versus guilt. (3- 6 years) The child wants to undertake many activities, surpassing even the limits that parents put them and therefore will feel guilty. (chaotic parents do more harm than authoritarian parents) Stage of activity versus inferiority. (7 - 11 years) It coincides with the school stage, in what gives importance to the grades,.. The child should learn to feel competent to be some things and not so much in others. The social support you have is also important. Adolescence stage. (12 years onwards) There is a very important challenge who am I?, sexual identity, social role,... Conquer the identity or confusion of roles. Stage of intimacy versus isolation. In these adult years we are looking for love, company. We solve this stage by finding that love, affection or isolation (for fear of rejection). Stage of creativity versus stagnation. You learn to feel useful, active (for your children, professional,..) or otherwise you feel that you don't contribute anything, you get stuck. Stage of integrity versus disappearance. ( full old age) We ask ourselves whether in life we have achieved what we have thought, if life deserved grief, and even begins if you have lived life or life has passed through you, death,...

Learning theories. To talk about learning theories is to talk about Watson. This author is going to propose that for psychology to be a science can not be walked in the unconscious but we have to rely on the observed behaviors, on the behaviors that can be measured, this is the behavioral paradigm. Behaviorism forms the basis of learning theory. And these emphasize how people learn specific behaviors. These theories of learning will develop the laws of behavior. These laws of conduct may apply to anyone regardless of age or position. Within the learning theories we have to talk about conditioning. Conditioning is a part of learning that focuses on seeing how we learn to associate stimuli and responses. We can differentiate between two types of conditioning: Classic conditioning. (reply) It is based on the association of a neutral stimulus initially to an unconditional stimulus. So the person or animal learns to respond under neutral stimulus. Many of our emotional responses have been learned by classic conditioning. It is the one that we learn emotional responses, in it is involved the smooth musculature. And they're involuntary answers. Pavlov example : (dogs) EN - I - IR Is - EC - RC EC - RC Operative conditioning. The organism learns above all how a particular behavior has a certain consequence. If the consequence is useful or pleasant the organism tends to repeat the behavior. If the consequence is unpleasant or useless the organism does not repeat the behavior. A - E The author who said more of this is Skinner. The answer is voluntary (volitional behavior). Where the fluted musculature is involved. I can reinforce behaviors and I can also punish behaviors. The consequences can be external or internal. E.g. if I take a 10, the note is external and the pride, the satisfaction is internal. If I reinforce a behavior, I make them more likely. If I manipulate the consequences of punishing behavior, this will decrease your emission capacity. The strengthening in turn can be : Positive : (I add something) I follow the behavior of a pleasant, pleasant consequence (e.g. I strive to study and take out a 10).

Negative : (I remove something) what I do is after the behavior I subscribe something unpleasant (e.g. or man works in a workshop and there is a lot of noise, something is put in the ears to ignore that noise, or the helmet (behaviour) so as not to crash (stimulus). Punishment can also be positive or negative : Positive punishment : every time the subject emits the unwanted behavior presents him with something unpleasant. E.g. every time he screams a boy the father hits him with a cake. Negative punishment : every time undesirable behavior appears, I suppress, I remove something nice to the subject. E.g. the child should pick up at 1 and pick up at 6 and tell him very well you arrived very late so do not leave the next weekends. Extinction : is when the behavior of the subject is not accompanied by any stimulus. In punishment the subject does not learn new behaviors that replace the undesirable ones he is now transmitting. In the long run, the behavior we didn't want to happen comes back. One of the criticisms of learning behaviors is that it can be applied in specific behaviors, but it doesn't happen in complex behaviors. E.g. at this time there was a case that shocked, was that a gentleman said that his horse had learned to add, subtract, multiply and divide, but once studied the case they realized that the hat was going up when the horse had to stop. Then this gentleman taught the horse an operating conditioning. Much of the responses of social interaction are learned through operating or instrumental conditioning. Social learning theory. There is another strategy in social learning that is modeling: we can learn without issuing behavior. We can look at what others do and see what consequences it has. In modeling a person learns by observing the consequences of behavior. Modeling is not passive, it has a significant (voluntary) load. Modeling is especially useful in situations where we feel insecure or have no experiences and the behavior is exhiband (demonstrated) in a model that we admire or identify with, we feel like-minded. E.g. a child can learn to share his things by watching his older brother share his toys with the other children. In modeling, the important thing is to be aware that there are models from which children learn.

Cognitive theories. Cognitive theories have a study object, focusing on the structure and development of thought processes, as this affects the person's understanding of their environment. Of all the cognitive theories we're going to stick with Piaget's theory. Piaget assumed that children at every age had the capacity to solve certain issues and problems. Piaget is commissioned an investigation and begins to worry about children's mistakes. Piaget realized that children of the same age made the same mistakes and he therefore establishes an evolutionary sequence in the cognitive process. Periods in evolutionary development. Piaget distinguishes four periods in the cognitive study: First period, 0 to 2 years : called sensoriomotor period. In this period the child uses his senses and motor abilities to know the objects and the world (see what he can do with things) Learn what is called the permanence of the object (achievement). Second period, from 2 to 6 years : called pre-operational period. We observe that children are able to use symbolic thinking, which includes the ability to speak, we use signs to know the world. However, this symbolic thought is still an egocentric thought, the child understands the world from his perspective. Third period, from 7 to 11 years: period of specific operations. In this period the child can apply the logic, apply principles. The child no longer knows intuitively but rationally. It's the school term. Fourth period, from 12 years onwards : period of formal operations. So we're talking about the adult teenager. It is the stage of abstract thought, not only thinks of reality, but how it can do things, it can already hypothesize. How cognitive development takes place. For Piaget we all have a profound need for balance. Balance is a state of mental harmony. How do you come to this mental harmony? It is achieved when schemes are consistent with people's real experiences. Schemas are the ways to think and interact with ideas and objects in the environment.

It may happen that the schemes do not fit with the experiences and then the imbalances, the crises, the confusion. If we overcome the confusion what we will do is that we modify old schemes by new schemes. Cognitive growth is carried out through two processes: The organization. It's about organizing the ideas I'm assimilating to make sense. The adaptation. It's about adapting ideas to include new ways of thinking. Adaptation is achieved by two mechanisms that are: Assimilation. (incorporation of new ideas into the current scheme). Accommodated. (that the new information is perfectly integrated into the cognitive or intellectual structure). Both processes work in unison at the same time, at the same time. Other very current cognitive theories are theories of information processing. These theories are very novel. Their goal is to study how the human mind works and they establish the metaphor, the mind-computer analogy. The approach of people's minds with a computer. People therefore store information, classify it, retrieve data with appropriate instructions. E.g. we distinguish structures (hypothetical constructs) Sensory record : data entry into the person's brain. There is some of this data that the brain takes, another part that loses and another part that rejects it. Time-term memory or working memory : works in the present and is aware. Long-term memory or knowledge base : we retain data longer than the present moment. It has limited capacity. All the knowledge that accumulates throughout life is part of the M.L.P. Sociocultural theories. All children will acquire the skills and knowledge of their cultural environment. Its growth is mediatized by the culture in which it is born and lives. We also soak in beliefs, values. Sociocultural theory, which seeks to explain, is that both our ...